yt- 


! 


EEPTILES   AND  BIBDS. 


HAWKING    IN    THE    MIDDLE    AGES. 


Fronti."-j>it 


REPTILES  AND  BIRDS. 


A  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  VARIOUS  ORDERS  ; 


WITH    A    DESCRIPTION    OF    THE 


Habits  and  Economy  of  the  Most  Interesting. 


LOUIS    FIGUIER. 


EDITED    IlV 


PARKER      GILL  MO  RE 

Author  of  "  Gun,  Roil,  and  Saddle,"  &v. 


WITH    307    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


\V.   J.    HOLLAND    &    CO., 

SUBSCRIPTION       BOOK       PUBLISHERS, 
SPRINGFIELD,    MASS. 


50 


PREFACE. 


IN  presenting  to  the  public  this  English  version  of  Louis  FIGUIER'S 
interesting  work  on  Reptiles  and  Birds,  I  beg  to  state  that  where 
alterations  and  additions  have  been  made,  my  object  has  been 
that  the  style  and  matter  should  be  suited  to  the  present  state  of 
general  knowledge,  and  that  all  classes  should  be  able  to  obtain 
useful  information  and  amusement  from  the  pages  which  I  have 
now  the  honour  and  pleasure  of  presenting  to  them. 

On  commencing  my  undertaking  I  was  not  aware  of  the 
immensity  of  the  labour  to  be  done,  and  fear  that  I  must  have 
relinquished  my  arduous  task  but  for  the  kind  encouragement  of 
FRANK  BUCKLAND,  Esq.,  Inspector  of  Salmon  Fisheries,  and  HENRY 
LEE,  Esq.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  &c.,  to  both  of  whom  I  take  this  oppor- 
tunity of  returning  my  sincere  thanks. 

PARKER  GILLMORE 

("UBIQUE"). 

December,  1809. 


CONTENTS. 


EEPTILES. 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER     . 1 

CHAPTER  I. 

AMPHIBIA,    OR   BATRACHIANS. 

PAGE  PAGE 

Structural  Distinctions 8       Toads 25 

Intelligence 13          Natterjack 26 

Characteristics 15           Surinam 28 

Historical  Antiquity 18       Land  Salamanders 31 

Distribution 19           Spotted 32 

Frogs 19           Black 33 

Habits  of  Life 21       Aquatic  Salamanders 33 

Development  of  Young     ....     22          Crested 34 

Green 23           Gigantic 34 

Common 23          Transformations  and  Reproduction  35 

Green  Tree 24 

CHAPTER  II. 

OPHIDIAN   REPTILES,    OR   TRUE    SXAK.ES. 

Snakes 38       Snakes — 

Burrowing 42          Rock 61 

Ground 43          Natal  Rock 61 

Tree 43           Guinea  Rock 61 

Fresh-water 43          Royal  Rock 61 

Sea 43           Aboma 62 

Innocuous 46          Anaconda 65 

Blind 46           Cobra 70 

Shield-tail 47          Asp 75 

Black 49           Bungarus 76 

Rat 49          Pit  Vipers 78 

Ringed 49          Fer-de-lance 79 

Green  and  Yellow 52          Jararaca 80 

Viperine 52           Trimeresurus 80 

Desert 53          Rattle 82 

Whip 54          Copperhead 82 

Blunt-heads 56          Tic-polonga 88 

Boas 56           Puff  Adders 89 

Diamond 59           Common  Adder 92 

Carpet 59 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  III. 


Lizards,  Distribution  and  Division     .     99 

Grey 109 

Green 110 

Ocellated 110 

Ameivas 112 

Iguanas 117 

Basilisk 127 

Anoles 129 

Flying 132 


THE    ORDER   OF   LIZARDS — SAURIANS. 
PAGE 


PAGE 

Lizards — 

Gecko 134 

Chameleons 136 

Crocodiles 141 

Jacares 145 

Alligators 145 

Caiman 147 

True 149 

Gavials 153 


CHAPTEE  IV. 


CHELONIANS,    OR   SHIELDED   REPTILES. 


Formation 155 

Distribution  and  Classification  .     .     .  157 

Tortoises 158 

Land 158 

Margined 159 

Moorish 159 

Greek 160 

Elephantine 160 

Genus  Pyxis 161 

Ditto    Kinixys 161 

Homopodes 161 


Elodiansy  or  Marsh  Tortoises : 

Mud 162 

Emydes 163 

Pleuroderes 164 

Potamians,  or  River  Tortoises  : 

Trionyx 164 

Thalassians,  or  Sea  Tortoises  : 

Green 177 

Hawk's-bill 177 

Loggerhead 178 

Leather-back  .  .178 


BIEDS. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER. 

Anatomy 181  Nests 197 

Plumage 184  Reproduction      ........  201 

Beaks 189  Longevity 203 

Digestive  Organs 191  Utility 205 

Powers  of  Sight 193  Classification 207 

Vocal  Organs 195 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  NATATORES,    OR   SWIMMING   BIRDS. 

Divers 212       Penguins 218 

Great  Northern 213      Manchots 219 

Imbrine 216       Grebes 221 


Arctic 216 

Black- throated    ,  .216 


Castanean 222 

Crested .223 


Red-throated 217      Guillemots ..  224 


CONTENTS. 


ix 


CHAPTER  II. 


Mallard 232 

Golden-eyed  Garret 242 

Poachard 243 

Shoveller 244 

Shieldrake 246 

Eider  Duck 2*7 

Common  Teal 250 

Velvet  Duck 253 

Scoter,  Black 253 

Great-billed 258 

Goosander 259 

Smew 260 

Goose 261 

Wild 262 

Bean 266 

Domestic 266 

Bernicle  .  269 


DUCKS,    GEESE,    SWANS,    AND    PELICANS. 

PAGE  PAGE 

Goose — 
White-fronted  Bernicle     .     .     .     .269 

Swan 270 

Whooping- 273 

Black 277 

Frigate  Bird 277 

Tropic  Bird 279 

Darter 281 

Gannet 283 

Cormorant 285 

Shag 289 

Pelicans 291 

White 294 

Crested 295 

Brown 296 

Spectacled 297 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE    LARUX£. 


Tern 299 

Little 301 

Noddy 302 

Silver- winged 302 

Arctic 302 

Whiskered .  303 

Gull-billed 303 

Roseate 303 

Sandwich 303 

Caspian 303 

Scissors-bills 303 

Black 304 

Gulls 304 

Large  White- winged 306 

Great  Black-backed 306 

Herring 306 

Sea  Mews 304 

White,  or  Senator 307 

Brown-masked 307 

Laughing 307 

Grey 308 


Skua 308 

Parasite 309 

Richardson's 309 

Pomerine 309 

Common 310 

Petrels 310 

Giant 311 

Chequered 311 

Fulmar 311 

Stormy 311 

Blue 312 

Puffins' 312 

Grey 312 

English 312 

Brown 312 

Albatross 312 

Common 314 

Black-browed 314 

Brown 314 

Yellow  and  Black-beaked.  .  .  .314 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GRALLATORES,   OR  WADING  BIRDS. 


ralmidactyles : 

Flamingo 317 

Avocet 320 

Stilt  Bird 321 

Macrodactyles  : 

Water  Hens 322 

Common 323 

Purple,  or  Sultana  Fowl   ....  324 

Rails         325 


Coots 326 

Bald 328 

Crested 328 

Blue 328 

Glareola 328 

Jacana 328 

Kamichi 330 

Horned 332 

Faithful  ,     .     .332 


CONTENTS. 


Longirostres : 

Sandpipers 332 

Brown 334 

Greenshank 334 

Redshank 334 

Pond 334 

Wood 334 

Green 334 

Common 334 

Turnstone 334 

Ruff 336 

Knot 338 

Sanderlings 339 

Woodcock 339 

Snipe 343 

Common 344 

Great 345 

Jack 345 

Wilson's 345 

Godwit      .     . 345 

Curlew       ..." 346 

Ibis 348 

Sacred 348 

Green 351 

Scarlet 351 

Cultrirostres  : 

Spoonbills 352 

White 352 

Rose-coloured 352 

Storks 353 

White 353 

Black 357 

Argala 357 

Jabiru 359 

Ombrette 359 

Bec-ouvert 359 

Drome  .  .  359 


PAGK 

Tantalus 360 

Boatbill 360 

Herons 361 

Common 362 

Purple 364 

White 364 

Bitterns 366 

Crane 366 

Ash-coloured 366 

Demoiselle 371 

Crested 371 

Hooping 371 

Caurale 373 

Pressirostres  : 

Cariama 373 

Oyster-catchers 373 

Runners 376 

Lapwings 376 

Plovers 378 

Great  Land 379 

Doterel 379 

Ringed 379 

Kentish 380 

Golden 380 

Pluvian 381 

Bustard 381 

Great 381 

Brempennw  : 


Ostrich      .     ,  ....  383 


Rhea 390 

Cassowary 392 

Emu 393 

Apteryx 395 

Extinct  Brevipenn& : 

Dodo 397 

Epiornis 397 

Dinornis 397 


CHAPTER  V. 

GALLINACEOUS    BIRDS. 


Habits,  origin,  &c 399 

Tetraonidce  : 

Capercailzie 401 

Grouse,  Black 402 

Pinnated 402 

Ruffed 403 

Cock  of  the  Plains 402 

Gelinotte 403 

Ptarmigans 404 

Common 404 

Red  Grouse 405 

Perdicides  : 

Gangas 405 

Pin-tailed  S  and  Grouse 406 

Heteroclites 406 

Quails 406 

Partridges 410 

Grey 415 


Partridges,  Red-legged 417 

Gambra 417 

Colin,  Virginian 417 

Californian 41 

Solitary 41 

Francolins 41 

Chinese 41 

European 42 

African  and  Indian 42 

Coturnix 42 

Turnix  tachydroma 42 

Tinamides 42 

Chionidse 42 

Megapodidse 42 

PhasianidcG  : 

Pheasants 42 

Common 42 

Golden  ...  .42 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Pheasants — 

Silver 425 

Ring-necked 427 

Reeves's 427 

Lady  Amherst's 427 

Argus 427 

Gallus 427 

Common 427 

Bankiva 429 

Jungle-fowl 429 

Bionzed 429 

Fork-tailed 429 

Kulm 429 

Negro 429 

Tragopans 435 

Pintados 435 

Turkeys 437 

Wild 437 

Domestic 440 

Ocellated 441 

Peacocks 441 

Domestic 442 

Wild 444 

Polyplectrons 444 


Impeyan  Pheasants 444 

Alectors 444 

Hocco,  or  Curassow 444 

Pauxis 446 

Penelopes,  or  Guans 446 

Hoazins 446 

Columbidee : 

Colombi-Gallines 447 

Pigeons  (Colombes) 448 

King  or  Wood 450 

Wild  Rock 450 

Common  Domestic 450 

Pouter 451 

Roman 451 

Swift 452 

Carrier 452 

Tumbler 452 

Wheeling 452 

Nun 452 

Fan-tailed 452 

Turtle  Dove -.     .     .  453 

Ring  Dove 453 

Passenger i    .     .  453 

Columbars 456 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SCANSORES,  OR   CLIMBERS. 

Parrots 457  Cuckoos — 

Macaw 464  Grey 469 

Parrakeets 465       Indicators 472 

Tabuan 465       Anis 473 

Parrot,  Grey 466       Barbets 474 

Green 466       Trogons 475 

Cockatoos 466  Resplendent 476 

Toucans 467  Mexican 476 

Proper 468       Woodpeckers 476 

Aracaris •     .     .  469       Wry-necks 479 

Cuckoos 469       Jacainars 480 


CHAPTER  VII. 


PASSERINES. 


Syndacti/les : 

Hornbills 482 

Rhinoceros 483 

Fly-catchers 483 

King-fishers 484 

Ceyx  Meninting 486 

Bee-eaters 486 

Common 488 

Momots 487 

Tai/iirotitres  : 

Hoopoes    . 488 

Epimachus 490 

Promerops 490 

Colibri 491 

Proper 491 

Humming-birds 491 


Creepers 495 

Picumnus 496 

Furnarius 496 

Sucriers 497 

Soui-mangas 497 

Nuthatches 498 

Conirostres : 

Birds  of  Paradise 499 

Great  Emerald 500 

King  Bird 500 

Superb 500 

Sifilets 501 

Crows 502 

Raven 502 

Carrion 502 

Royston 502 


XII 


CONTENTS. 


Crows — 

Eook 502 

Jackdaw 502 

Magpies 507 

Common 508 

Brazilian 509 

Chinese 509 

Jays  * 509 

Nut-cracker 510 

Rollers 511 

Starlings 512 

Common 513 

Sardinian 513 

Baltimore  Oriole 514 

Beef-eater 514 

Crossbill 515 

Grosbeak 516 

Bullfinch 517 

Siskin 517 

House  Sparrow 518 

Goldfinch 519 

Linnets 519 

Chaffinch 520 

Canary 521 

Widow  Bird  .     .     • 523 

Java  Sparrow 523 

Weaver  Birds 523 

Republican 524 

Buntings 524 

Reed 525 

CM 526 

Ortolan 526 

Snow 527 

Tits 527 

Great 528 

Long-tailed 528 

Larks 529 

Crested  Lark 531 

Fissirostres  : 

Swallow 531 

Salangane 537 

Goatsuckers 538 

Night-jar 540 

Guacharos 541 


PAGE 
Dentirostres : 

Manakins 542 

Cock  of  the  Rock 542 

Warblers 542 

Nightingale 543 

Sedge  Warbler 545 

Night  Warbler 545 

La  Fauvette  Couturiere     .     .     .     .546 

Garden 547 

Robin 547 

Wrens 547 

Golden-crested 548 

European 548 

Wood 548 

Stone  Chat 549 

Wagtails 550 

Pied 551 

Quaketail 551 

Pipits 552 

Lyretail 552 

Orioles 553 

Golden 553 

Mino 554 

Honey-sucker 555 

Ouzel,  Rose-coloured 555 

Water 556 

Solitary  Thrush 556 

Blackbird,  Common 557 

Ringed 559 

Solitary 559 

Thrush,  Polyglot 559 

Song 560 

Redwing 561 

Tanagers 561 

Drongos 562 

Cotingas 563 

Caterpillar-eater 563 

Chatterers 564 

Fly-catchers 565 

Tyrants 567 

Cephalopterus  ornatus 567 

Shrikes 568 

Vangas 571 

Cassicus  .     - 571 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

RAPTORES,    OR   BIRDS    OF   PREY. 


Nocturnal : 

Horned  Owls 576 

Great 576 

Virginian 579 

Short-eared 579 

Ketupu 581 

Scops 581 

Hornless  Owls 583 

Sparrow 583 

Small  Sparrow 584 


Hornless  Owls — 

Pampas  Sparrow 584 

Burrowing 585 

Tawny 585 

Barn 585 

Canada 588 

Hawk 589 

White 589 

Caparacoch 590 

Harfang 590 


CONTENTS. 


xm 


Hornless  Owls — 

Lapland      .     . 591 

Ural 591 

Diurnal : 

Eagles 592 

Koyul 602 

Imperial 602 

Bonelli's 602 

Tawny 602 

Booted 602 

Reinwardt's 602 

Vulturine 602 

Sea  Eagles 602 

European 603 

American 604 

Marine 604 

Piscivorous 604 

Caffir 604 

Mace's 604 

Pondicherry 604 

Indian 604 

Osprey 605 

Huppart 606 

Falco  urubitinga 606 

Harpy 606 

White-bellied  Eagle     .     •     .     .     .607 

Falcons 608 

Gyrfalcons 608 

White 609 

Iceland 609 

Norway 609 

Falcons 610 

Lanier 610 

Sultan 610 

Peregrine 610 

Hobby 613 

Merlin 613 

Kestrel 613 

Bengal 613 

Goshawk 622 

yarrow-hawks 623 

Common 623 

Dwarf 623 


Sparrow-hawks — 

Chanting  Falcon      .     .     ...     .     .  624 

Kites 624 

Common 624 

Black 625 

Parasite 625 

American 625 

Buzzards 626 

Common 627 

Honey 627 

Eough-legged 627 

Harriers 627 

Hen 628 

Moor 628 

Frog-eating 628 

Pale-chested 629 

Jardine's 629 

Ash-coloured 629 

Caracaras 629 

Brazilian 629 

Chimango 629 

Long-winged 629 

Chimachima 629 

Funebris 631 

Vultures 631 

Griffons 632 

Bearded 632 

Sarcoramphi 634 

Condor 634 

King  Vulture 638 

Cathartes 639 

Urubu 639 

Turkey  Buzzard 641 

Common  Vulture 642 

Percnopterus 644 

Vulture,  Pondicherry 642 

Kolbe's 642 

Yellow 642 

Sociable 645 

Chinese 646 

Oricou 646 

Serpent-eaters 646 

Secretary  Bird 646 


REPTILES  ANfo  BIRDS, 


INTRODUCTORY. 

THERE  is  little  apparent  resemblance  between  the  elegant  feathered 
warbler  which  makes  the  woods  re-echo  to  its  cheerful  song,  and 
the  crawling  reptile  which  is  apt  to  inspire  feelings  of  disgust  when 
the  more  potent  sensation  of  terror  is  absent — between  the  familiar 
Swallow,  which  builds  its  house  of  clay  under  the  eaves  of  your 
roof,-  or  the  warbler  whose  nest,  with  its  young  progeny,  care- 
fully watched  by  the  father  of  the  brood  in  the  silent  watches  of 
the  night,  is  now  threatened  by  the  Serpent  which  has  glided  so 
silently  into  the  bush,  its  huge  mouth  already  open  to  swallow 
the  whole  family,  while  the  despairing  and  fascinated  parents 
have  nothing  but  their  slender  bills  to  oppose  to  their  formid- 
able foe.  " Placed  side  by  side,"  says  Professor  Huxley,  "a 
Humming-bird  and  a  Tortoise,  or  an  Ostrich  and  a  Crocodile, 
offer  the  strongest  contrast ;  and  a  Stork  seems  to  have  little 
but  its  animality  in  common  with  the  Snake  which  it  swallows." 
Nevertheless,  unlike  as  they  are  in  outward  appearance,  there 
is  sufficient  resemblance  in  their  internal  economy  to  bring  them 
together  in  most  attempts  at  a  classification  of  the  Animal  King- 
dom. The  air-bladder  which  exists  between  the  digestive  canal 
and  kidneys  in  some  fishes,  becomes  vascular  with  the  form 
and  cellular  structure  of  lungs  in  reptiles  ;  the  heart  has  two 
auricles,  the  ventricle  in  most  is  imperfectly  divided,  and  more 
or  less  of  the  venous  blood  is  mixed  with  the  arterial  which 
circulates  over  the  body  ;  but  retaining  their  gills  and  being 
therefore  transitional  in  structure,  they  are  also  cold-blooded.  In 


2  INTRODUCTORY. 

birds,  the  lungs  are  spongy,  the  cavity  of  the  air-bags  becoming 
obliterated  by  the  multiplication  of  vascular  cellules;  the  heart 
is  four- chambered,  transmitting  venous  blood  to  the  lungs,  and 
pure  arterial  blood  to  the  body;  the  temperature  is  raised  and 
maintained  at  90°  to  100°  Fahr. 

Thus  Reptiles,  like  Birds,  breathe  the  common  air  by  means 
of  their  lungs,  but  respiration  is  much  less  active.  "Although/' 
remarks  Professor  Owen,  "  the  heart  of  Birds  resembles  in  some 
particulars  that  of  Reptiles,  the  four  cavities  are  as  distinct  as 
in  the  Mammalia,  but  they  are  relatively  stronger,  their  valvular 
mechanism  is  more  perfect,  and  the  contractions  of  this  organ 
are  more  forcible  and  frequent  in  birds,  in  accordance  with 
their  more  extended  respiration  and  their  more  energetic  mus- 
cular action/'  It  is  true,  as  Professor  Huxley  informs  us,  that  the 
pinion  of  a  bird,  which  corresponds  with  the  human  hand  or  the 
fore  paw  of  a  reptile,  has  three  points  representing  three  fingers  : 
no  reptile  has  so  few.*  The  breast-bone  of  a  bird  is  converted 
into  membrane-bone :  no  such  conversion  takes  place  in  reptiles. 
The  sacrum  is  formed  by  a  number  of  caudal  and  dorsal  vertebrae. 
In  reptiles  the  organ  is  constituted  by  one  or  two  sacral  vertebrae. 

In  other  respects  the  two  classes  present  many  obvious  dif- 
ferences, but  these  are  more  superficial  than  would  be  suspected  at 
first  glance.  And  Professor  Huxley  believes  that,  structurally, 
"reptiles  and  birds  do  really  agree  much  more  closely  than  birds 
with  mammals,  or  reptiles  with  amphibians." 

While  most  existing  birds  differ  thus  widely  from  existing  rep- 
tiles, the  cursorial  or  struthious  genera,  comprising  the  Ostrich, 
Nandou,  Emu,  Cassowary,  Apteryx,  and  the  recently  extinct 
Dinornis  of  New  Zealand,  come  nearer  to  the  reptiles  in  structure 
than  any  others.  All  of  these  birds  are  remarkable  for  the  short- 
ness of  their  wings,  the  absence  of  a  crest  or  keel  upon  the  breast- 
bone, and  some  peculiarities  of  the  skull,  which  render  them  more 
peculiarly  reptilian.  But  the  gap  between  reptiles  and  birds  is 
only  slightly  narrowed  by  their  existence,  and  is  somewhat  unsatis- 
factory to  those  who  advocate  the  development  theory,  which 
asserts  that  all  animals  have  proceeded,  by  gradual  modification, 
from  a  common  stock. 

*   Vide,  however,  p.  8.— ED. 


CONNECTING  LINKS  IN  CLASSIFICATION.  3 

Traces  had  been  discovered  in  the  Mesozoic  formations  of  certain 
Ornitholites,  which  were  too  imperfect  to  determine  the  affinities 
of  the  bird.  But  the  calcareous  mud  of  the  ancient  sea-bottom, 
which  has  hardened  into  the  famous  lithographic  slate  of  Solen- 
hofen,  revealed  to  Hermann  von  Meyer,  in  1861,  first  the  impression 
of  a  feather,  and,  in  the  same  year,  the  independent  discovery 
of  the  skeleton  of  the  bird  itself,  which  Yon  Meyer  had  named 
Archteopteryx  lithographicus.  This  relic  of  a  far-distant  age  now 
adorns  the  British  Museum. 

The  skull  of  the  Archeeopteryx  is  almost  lost,  but  the  leg,  the  foot, 


\ 


Fig.  1. — Archseopteryx  lithographicus. 

the  pelvis,  the  shoulder- girdle,  and  the  feathers,  as  far  as  their  struc- 
ture can  be  made  out,  are  completely  those  of  existing  birds.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  tail  is  very  long.  Two  digits  of  the  manus 
have  curved  claws,  and,  to  all  appearance,  the  metacarpal  bones  are 
quite  free  and  disunited,  exhibiting,  according  to  Professor  Huxley, 
closer  approximation  to  the  reptilian  structure  than  any  existing 
bird.  Mr.  Evans  has  even  detected  that  the  mandibles  were  pro- 
vided with  a  few  slender  teeth. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  same  writer  points  out  certain  peculiari- 
ties in  the  single  reptile  found  also  among  the  Solenhofen  slates, 
which  has  been  described  and  named  Compsognathus  longipes  by  the 

B2 


4  INTEODUCTOEY. 

late  Andreas  Wagner.  This  reptile  he  declares  "to  be  a  still 
nearer  approximation  to  the  missing  link  between  reptiles  and 
birds,"  thus  narrowing  the  gap  between  the  two  classes. 

While  we  think  it  proper  to  point  to  these  structural  resem- 
blances of  one  class  of  the  animal  creation  to  others  very  different 
in  their  external  appearance,  it  is  necessary  to  guard  ourselves 
and  our  readers  from  adopting  the  inferences  sometimes  deduced 
from  them ;  that  "  these  infinitely  diversified  forms  are  merely 
the  final  terms  in  an  immense  series  of  changes  which  have  been 
brought  about  in  the  course  of  immeasurable  time,  by  the  operation 
of  causes  more  or  less  similar  to  those  which  are  at  work  at  the 
present  day."  Domestication  and  other  causes  have  no  doubt 
produced  changes  in  the  form  of  many  animals  ;  but  none  from 
which  this  inference  can  be  drawn,  except  in  the  imagination  of 
ingenious  men  who  strain  the  facts  to  support  a  preconceived 
hypothesis.  In  spite  of  the  innumerable  forms  which  the  pigeon 
assumes  by  cross-breeding  and  domestication,  it  still  remains  a 
pigeon ;  the  dog  is  still  a  dog,  and  so  with  other  animals.  Nor 
does  it  seem  to  us  to  be  necessary,  or  calculated  to  advance  our 
knowledge  in  natural  history,  to  form  theories  which  can  only 
disturb  our  existing  systems  without  supplying  a  better.  Systems 
are  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  arrangement  and  identification ; 
but  it  should  never  be  forgotten  that  all  classifications  are  artificial 
— a  framework  or  cabinet,  into  the  partitions  of  which  many  facts 
may  be  stowed  away,  carefully  docketed  for  future  use.  "  Theories," 
says  Le  Yaillant,  "are  more  easily  made  and  more  brilliant  probably 
than  observations ;  but  it  is  by  observation  alone  that  science  can 
be  enriched."  A  bountiful  Creator  appears  to  have  adopted  one 
general  plan  in  the  organization  of  all  the  vertebrate  creation  ; 
and,  in  order  to  facilitate  their  study,  naturalists  have  divided 
them  into  classes,  orders,  and  genera,  formed  on  the  differences 
which  exist  in  the  structure  of  their  vital  functions.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  are  obvious,  but  it  does  not  involve  the  necessity  of 
fathoming  what  is  unfathomable,  of  explaining  what  is  to  man 
inexplicable  in  the  works  of  GOD.* 

*  This,  however,  is  a  subject  upon  which  naturalists  of  the  highest  rank  hold 
different  opinions,  many  of  those  most  highly  qualified  to  form  a  correct  judgment 
advocating  the  tenets  propounded  "by  Mr.  Charles  Darwin. — ED. 


CONNECTING  LINKS  IN  CLASSIFICATION.  5 

In  previous  volumes  of  this  series*  we  have  endeavoured  to  give 
the  reader  some  general  notions  of  the  form,  life,  and  manners 
of  the  branches  of  the  animal  kingdom  known  as  Zoophytes, 
Mollusca,  Articulata,  and  Pisces.  We  now  continue  the  superior 
sub- kingdom  (to  which  the  fishes  also  belong)  of  the  Yertebrated 
Animals,  so  tailed  from  the  osseous  skeleton  which  encircles  their 
bodies,  in  which  the  vertebral  column,  surmounted  by  the  cranium, 
its  appendage,  forms  the  principal  part. 

The  presence  of  a  solid  frame  in  this  series  of  animals  admits  of 
their  attaining  a  size  which  is  denied  to  any  of  the  others.  The 
skeleton  being  organized  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  remarkable 
vigour  and  precision  to  all  their  movements. 

In  the  vertebrated  animals  the  nervous  system  is  also  more 
developed.  There  is,  consequently,  a  more  exquisite  sensibility  in 
them  than  in  the  classes  whose  history  we  have  hitherto  discussed. 
They  possess  five  senses,  more  or  less  fully  developed,  a  heart,  a 
circulation,  and  their  blood  is  red. 

We  have  now  to  deal  with  a  class  advanced  above  that  of  fishes, 
that  of  Reptilia,  which  is  divided  as  follows  : — 

AMPHIBIA — (BATRACHIA,  Cuv.) 

Animals  having  ribs  or  processes,  or  short,  slight,  and  free  ver- 
tebrae, forming  a  series  of  separate  centrums,  deeply  cupped  at 
both  ends,  one  of  which  is  converted  by  ossification  in  the  mature 
animal  into  a  ball,  which  may  be  the  front  one,  as  in  the  Surinam 
Toad,  Pipa,  or  the  hind  ones  in  the  Frogs  and  Toads,  liana.  The 
skin  is  nude,  limbs  digitate,  gills  embryonal, — permanent  in  some, 
in  most  lost  in  metamorphosis,  —  to  be  succeeded  by  pulmonary 
respiration, — or  both ;  a  heart  with  one  ventricle  and  two  auricles. 
They  consist  of : — 

I.  OPHIOMORPHA. 
Cseciliadae  or  Ophiosomse. 

II.    ICTHYOMOKPIIA. 

Proteidse  or  Sirens,  Proteus,  Newts,  and  Salamanders. 


*  "  The  Ocean  World,"  from  the  French  of  Louis  Figuier.    "  The  Insect  World," 
from  the  French  of  the  same  author. 


6  INTEODUCTOEY. 

III.  THERIOMOKPHA. 
Aglossa     .     .     .     Pipa  or  Surinam  Toads. 
Eanidce    .     .     .     Frogs. 
HylidcB     .     .     .     Tree  Frogs. 
Bufonidce      .     .     Toads. 

CHELONIA,  OR  TURTLES. 

Distinguished  by  the  double  shield  in  which  their  bodies  are 
enclosed,  whether  they  are  terrestrial,  fresh- water,  or  marine. 

The  Turtles,  Chelonia,  have  the  limbs  natatory. 

Mud  Turtles,  Triom/x,  }   . 

5  limbs  amphibious. 
Terrapens,  .bmys, 

Tortoises,  Testudo,  limbs  terrestrial. 

LACERTILIA. 

Having  a  single  transverse  process  on  each  side,  single-headed 
ribs,  two  external  nostrils,  eyes  with  movable  lids ;  body  covered 
with  horny,  sometimes  bony,  scales. 

Lacerta — the  Monitors,  Crocodiles,  Lizards ;  having  ambulatory  limbs. 
Anguis — Ophisaurus,  Bimanus,  Chalcides,  Seps  ;  limbs  abortive ;  no  sacrum. 

OPHIDIA. 

Having  numerous  vertebrae  with  single-headed  hollow  ribs,  no 
visible  limbs,  eyelids  covered  by  an  immovable  transparent  lid ; 
body  covered  by  horny  scales.  It  includes  : — 

Viperince — the  Vipers  and  Crotalidae. 
Colulrincc — the  Colubers,  Hydridae,  and  Boidse. 

CROCODILIA. 

Teeth  in  a  single  row,  implanted  in  distinct  sockets ;  body  de- 
pressed, elongated,  protected  on  the  back  by  solid  shield ;  tail 
longer  than  the  trunk,  compressed  laterally,  and  furnished  with 
crests  above.  The  several  families  are : — 

Crocodilida — the  Gavials,  Mecistops,  Crocodiles. 
Alligatoridce — Jacares,  Alligators,  Caiman.* 


*  By  some  naturalists  the  Amphibia  are  considered  as  a  distinct  class,  by  other 
as  a  sub-class  either  of  Reptilia  or  of  Pisces.  Of  the  reptiles  proper  (at  present 
existing),  the  arrangement  into  the  orders  Testudinata  (or  Tortoises),  Sauria  (or 
Lizards),  and  Ophidia  (or Snakes),  is  the  one  most  generally  adopted;  but  De  Blain- 
ville  elevates  the  Loricata  (or  Crocodiles)  to  the  rank  of  an  order,  and  others  have 
adopted  a  division  of  corresponding  rank,  Saurophidia,  for  the  Anguis  series  above 
referred  to ;  but  the  latter  are  merely  limbless  Lizards  (or  with  abortive  limbs)  akin 
to  the  Scinques. — ED. 


CHAPTEE  I. 
AMPHIBIA,  OR  BATEACHIANS. 

THOSE  geographers  who  divide  the  world  into  land  and  sea  over- 
look in  their  nomenclature  the  extensive  geographical  areas 
which  belong  permanently  to  neither  section— namely,  the  vast 
marshy  regions  on  the  margins  of  lakes,  rivers,  and  ponds,  which 
are  alternately  deluged  with  the  overflow  of  the  adjacent  waters, 
and  parched  and  withering  under  the  exhalations  of  a  summer 
heat ;  regions  which  could  only  be  inhabited  by  beings  capable  of 
living  on  land  or  in  water;  beings  having  both  gills  through 
which  they  may  breathe  in  water,  and  lungs  through  which 
they  may  respire  the  common  air.  The  first  order  of  reptiles 
possesses  this  character,  and  hence  its  name  of  Amphibia,  from 
afjifapios,  having  a  double  life. 

The  transition  from  fishes  to  reptiles  is  described  by  Professor 
Owen,  with  that  wonderful  power  of  condensation  which  he  possesses, 
in  the  following  terms  : — "  All  vertebrates  during  more  or  less  of 
their  developmental  life- period  float  in  a  liquid  of  similar  specific 
gravity  to  themselves.  A  large  proportion,  constituting  the  lowest 
organised  and  first  developed  forms  of  this  province,  exist  and 
breathe  in  water,  and  are  called  fishes.  Of  these  a  few  retain  the 
primitive  vermiform  condition,  and  develop  no  limbs ;  in  the  rest 
they  are  ' fins'  of  simple  form,  moving  by  one  joint  upon  the 
body,  rarely  adapted  for  any  other  function  than  the  impulse 
or  guidance  of  the  body  through  the  water.  The  shape  of  the 
body  is  usually  adapted  for  moving  with  least  resistance  through 
the  liquid  medium.  The  surface  of  the  body  is  either  smooth 
and  lubricous  or  it  is  smoothly  covered  with  overlapping  scales ;  it 
is  rarely  defended  by  bony  plates,  or  roughened  by  tubercles. 


8  BATEACHIANS. 

Still  more  rarely  it  is  armed  with  spines."  Passing  over  the 
general  economy  of  fishes  we  come  to  the  heart.  "  The  heart," 
he  tells  us,  ""  consists  of  one  auricle  receiving  the  venous  blood, 
and  one  ventricle  propelling  it  to  the  gills  or  organs  submitting 
that  blood  in  a  state  of  minute  subdivisions  to  the  action  of 
aerated  water.  From  the  gills  the  aerated  blood  is  carried  over 
the  entire  body  by  vessels,  the  circulation  being  aided  by  the 
contraction  of  the  surrounding  muscles." 

The  functions  of  gills  are  described  by  the  Professor  with  great 
minuteness.  "  The  main  purpose  of  the  gills  of  fishes,"  he  says, 
"  being  to  expose  the  venous  blood  in  this  state  of  minute  sub- 
division to  streams  of  water,  the  branchial  arteries  rapidly  divide 
and  sub-divide  until  they  resolve  themselves  into  microscopic 
capillaries,  constituting  a  network  in  one  plane  or  layer,  supported 
by  an  elastic  plate,  covered  by  a  tesselated  and  non-ciliated  epithe- 
lium. This  covering  and  the  tunics  of  the  capillaries  are  so  thin  as 
to  allow  chemical  interchange  and  decomposition  to  take  place 
between  the  carbonated  blood  and  the  oxygenated  water.  The 
requisite  extent  of  the  respiratory  field  of  capillaries  is  gained  by 
various  modes  of  multiplying  the  surface  within  a  limited  space." 
"  Each  pair  of  processes,"  he  adds,  "  has  its  flat  side  turned  towards 
contiguous  pairs,  and  the  two  processes  of  each  pair  stand  edgeway 
to  each  other,  being  commonly  united  for  a  greater  or  less  extent 
from  their  base;  hence  Cuvier  describes  each  pair  as  a  single 
bifurcated  plate,  or  '  feuillet.'  ' 

The  modification  which  takes  place  in  the  respiratory  and 
other  organs  in  Eeptilia,  is  described  in  a  few  words.  "  Many 
fishes  have  a  bladder  of  air  between  the  digestive  canal  and  the 
kidneys,  which  in  some  communicate  with  an  air-duct  and  the 
gullet ;  but  its  office  is  chiefly  hydrostatic.  When  on  the  rise  of 
structure  this  air-bladder  begins  to  assume  the  vascular  and 
pharyngeal  relations  with  the  form  and  cellular  structure  of 
lungs,  the  limbs  acquire  the  character  of  feet :  at  first  thread- 
like and  many  jointed,  as  in  the  Lepidosiren  ;  then  bifurcate,  or 
two-fingered,  with  the  elbow  and  wrist  joints  of  land  animals, 
as  in  Amphiuma ;  next,  three-fingered,  as  in  Proteus,  or  four- 
fingered,  but  reduced  to  the  pectoral  pair,  as  in  Siren." 

In  all  reptiles  the  blood  is  conveyed  from  the  ventricular  part 


STEUCTUKAL  DISTINCTIONS.  9 

of  the  heart,  really  or  apparently,  by  a  single  trunk.  In  Lepi- 
dosiren  the  veins  from  the  lung-like  air-bladders  traverse  the 
auricle  which  opens  directly  into  the  ventricle.  In  some  the  vein 
dilates  before  communicating  with  the  ventricle  into  a  small 
auricle,  which  is  not  outwardly  distinct  from  the  much  larger 
auricle  receiving  the  veins  of  the  body.  In  Proteus  the  auricular 
system  is  incomplete.  In  Amphiuma  the  auricle  is  smaller  and 
less  fringed  than  in  the  Sirens,  the  ventricle  being  connected  to 
the  pericardium  by  the  apex  as  well  as  the  artery.  This  forms  a 
half  spiral  turn  at  its  origin,  and  dilates  into  a  broader  and 
shorter  bulb  than  in  the  Sirens. 

"  The  pulmonic  auricle,"  continues  the  learned  Professor,  "thus 
augments  in  size  with  the  more  exclusive  share  taken  by  the  lungs 
in  respiration ;  but  the  auricular  part  of  the  heart  shows  hardly 
any  outward  sign  of  its  diversion  in  the  Batrachians.  It  is  small 
and  smooth,  and  situated  on  the  left,  and  in  advance  of  the  ventricle 
in  Newts  and  Salamanders.  In  Frogs  and  Toads  the  auricle  is 
applied  to  the  base  of  the  ventricle,  and  to  the  back  and  side  of 
the  aorta  and  its  bulb." 

In  the  lower  members  of  the  order,  the  single  artery  from  the 
ventricle  sends,  as  in  fishes,  the  whole  of  the  blood  primarily  to  the 
branchial  organs,  during  life,  and  in  all  Batrachians  at  the  earlier 
aquatic  periods  of  existence.  In  the  Newt  three  pairs  of  external 
gills  are  developed  at  first  as  simple  filaments,  each  with  its 
capillary  loop,  but  speedily  expanding,  lengthening,  and  branching 
into  lateral  processes,  with  corresponding  looplets ;  those  blood- 
channels  intercommunicating  by  a  capillary  network.  The  gill  is 
covered  by  ciliated  scales,  which  change  into  non- cilia  ted 
cuticle  shortly  before  the  gills  are  absorbed.  In  the  Proteus 
anguinus,  three  parts  only  of  branchial  and  vascular  arches  are 
developed,  corresponding  with  the  number  of  external  gills.  In 
Siren  lacertina  the  gills  are  in  three  pairs  of  branchial  arches, 
the  first  and  fourth  fixed,  the  second  and  third  free,  increasing  in 
size  according  to  their  condition. 

The  AMPHIBIA,  then,  have  all,  at  some  stage  of  their  existence, 
both  gills  and  lungs  co- existent :  respiring  by  means  of  branchiae 
or  gills  while  in  the  water,  and  by  lungs  on  emerging  into  the 
open  air. 


10  BATEACHIANS. 

All  these  creatures  seem  to  have  been  well  known  to  the 
ancients.  The  monuments  of  the  Egyptians  abound  in  represen- 
tations of  Frogs,  Toads,  Tortoises,  and  Serpents.  Aristotle  was 
well  acquainted  with  their  form,  structure,  and  habits,  even  to 
their  reproduction.  Pliny's  description  presents  his  usual  amount 
of  error  and  exaggeration.  Darkness  envelops  their  history 
during  the  middle  ages,  from  which  it  gradually  emerges  in  the 
early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Belon  and  Rondi- 
letius  in  France,  Salviani  in  Italy,  and  Conrad  Gesner  in  Switzer- 
land, devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  Natural  History  with 
great  success.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  same  century  Aldrovandi 
appeared.  During  fifty  years  he  was  engaged  in  collecting 
objects  and  making  drawings,  which  were  published  after  his 
death,  in  1640,  edited  by  Professor  Ambrossini,  of  Bologna, 
the  Reptiles  forming  two  volumes.  In  these  volumes,  twenty -two 
chapters  are  occupied  by  the  Serpents.  But  the  first  arrange- 
ment which  can  be  called  systematic  was  that  produced  by  John 
Hay.  This  system  was  based  upon  the  mode  of  respiration,  the 
volume  of  the  eggs,  and  their  colour. 

Numerous  systems  have  since  appeared  in  France,  Germany, 
and  England ;  but  we  shall  best  consult  our  readers'  interest  by 
briefly  describing  the  classification  adopted  by  Professor  Owen, 
the  learned  Principal  of  the  British  Museum,  in  his  great  work 
on  the  Yertebrata. 

The  two  great  classes  Batrachians  and  Reptiles,  include  a 
number  of  animals  which  are  neither  clothed  with  hair,  like  the 
Mammalia,  covered  with  feathers  like  the  birds,  nor  furnished 
with  swimming  fins  like  fishes.  The  essential  character  of  rep- 
tiles is,  that  they  are  either  entirely  or  partially  covered  with 
scales.  Some  of  them — for  instance,  Serpents — move  along  the 
ground  with  a  gliding  motion,  produced  by  the  simple  contact 
and  adhesion  of  the  ventral  scales  with  the  ground.  Others,  such 
as  the  Tortoises,  the  Crocodiles,  and  the  Lizards,  move  by  means 
of  their  feet ;  but  these,  again,  are  so  short,  that  the  animals 
almost  appear  to  crawl  on  the  ground — however  swiftly,  in  some 
instances.  The  locomotive  organs  in  Serpents  are  the  vertebral 
column,  with  its  muscles,  and  the  stiff  epidermal  scutes  crossing 
the  under  surface  of  the  body.  "  A  Serpent  may,  however,  be 


TADPOLE  LIFE.  11 

seen  to  progress,"  says  Professor  Owen,  "  without  any  inflection, 
gliding  slowly  and  with  a  ghost-like  movement  in  a  straight  line, 
and  if  the  observer  have  the  nerve  to  lay  his  hand  flat  in  the 
reptile's  course,  he  will  feel,  as  the  body  glides  over  the  palm, 
the  surface  pressed  as  it  were  by  the  edges  of  a  close- set  series  of 
paper  knives,  successively  falling  flat  after  each  application." 
Others  of  the  class,  such  as  the  Tortoises,  Crocodiles,  and  Lizards, 
move  by  the  help  of  feet,  which  are  generally  small  and  feeble — 
in  a  few  species  being  limited  to  the  pectoral  region,  while  in 
most  both  pairs  are  present.  In  some,  as  in  various  Lizards,  the 
limbs  acquire  considerable  strength. 

There  is  one  genus  of  small  Lizards,  known  as  the  Dragons,  Draco, 
whose  movements  present  an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  Besides 
their  four  feet,  these  animals  are  furnished  with  a  delicate  mem- 
branous parachute,  formed  by  a  prolongation  of  the  skin  on  the 
flanks  and  sustained  by  the  long  slender  ribs,  which  permits  of 
their  dropping  from  a  considerable  height  upon  their  prey. 

Batrachians,  again,  differ  from  most  other  Reptilia  by  being 
naked :  moreover,  most  of  them  undergo  certain  metamorphoses ; 
in  the  first  stage  of  their  existence  they  lead  a  purely  aquatic 
life,  and  breathe  by  means  of  gills,  after  the  manner  of  fishes. 
Young  Frogs,  Toads,  and  Salamanders,  which  are  then  called  tad- 
poles, have,  in  short,  no  resemblance  whatever  to  their  parents  in 
the  first  stage  of  their  existence.  They  are  little  creatures  with 
slender,  elongated  bodies,  destitute  of  feet  and  fins,  but  with  large 
heads,  which  may  be  seen  swimming  about  in  great  numbers  in 
stagnant  ponds,  where  they  live  and  breathe  after  the  manner 
of  fishes.  By  degrees,  however,  they  are  transformed:  their 
limbs  and  air-breathing  lungs  are  gradually  developed,  then 
they  slowly  disappear,  and  a  day  arrives  when  they  find  themselves 
conveniently  organized  for  another  kind  of  existence ;  they  burst 
from  their  humid  retreat,  and  betake  themselves  to  dry  land. 
''  The  tadpole  meanwhile  being  subject  to  a  series  of  changes  in 
every  system  of  organs  concerned  in  the  daily  needs  of  the  coming 
aerial  and  terrestrial  existence,  still  passes  more  or  less  time  in 
water,  and  supplements  the  early  attempt  at  respiration  by  pullu- 
lating loops  and  looplets  of  capillaries  from  the  branchial  vessels." 
(Owen.) 


12  BATEACHIANS. 

Nevertheless,  they  do  not  altogether  forget  their  native 
element ;  thanks  to 'their  webbed  feet,  they  can  still  traverse  the 
waters  which  sheltered  their  infancy ;  and  when  alarmed  by  any 
unusual  noise,  they  rush  into  the  water  as  a  place  of  safety,  where 
they  swim  about  in  apparent  enjoyment.  In  some  of  them,  as 
Proteus  and  the  amphibious  Sirens,  where  the  limbs  are  confined 
to  the  pectoral  region,  swimming  seems  to  be  the  state  most  natural 
to  them.  They  are  truly  amphibious,  and  they  owe  this  double 
existence  to  the  persistence  of  their  gills  ;  for  in  these  perenni- 
branchiate  Batrachians,  arteries  are  developed  from  the  last  pair 
of  branchial  arches  which  convey  blood  to  the  lungs :  while, 
in  those  having  external  deciduous  gills,  the  office  being  dis- 
charged, they  lose  their  ciliate  and  vascular  structure  and  disap- 
pear altogether.  The  skull  in  Reptiles  generally  consists  of  the 
same  parts  as  in  the  Mammalia,  though  the  proportions  are  dif- 
ferent. The  skull  is  flat,  and  the  cerebral  cavity,  small  as  it  is,  is 
not  filled  with  brain.  The  vertebral  column  commences  at  the 
posterior  part  of  the  head,  two  condyles  occupying  each  side  of  the 
vertebral  hole  (Fig.  2).  The  anterior  limbs  are  mostly  shorter  than 
the  posterior,  as  might  be  expected  of  animals  whose  progression 
is  effected  by  leaps.  Ribs  there  are  none.  The  sternum  is  highly 
developed,  and  a  large  portion  of  it  is  cartilaginous  ;  it  moves  in 
its  mesial  portions  the  two  clavicles  and  two  coracoid  bones, 
which  fit  on  to  the  scapula,  the  whole  making  a  sort  of  hand  which 
supports  the  anterior  extremities,  and  an  elongated  disk  which 
supports  the  throat,  and  assists  in  deglutition  and  respiration.  The 
bone  of  the  arm  (humerus)  is  single,  and  long  in  proportion  to  the 
fore  arm.  In  the  Frogs  (Rana),  the  ilic  bone  is  much  elongated, 
and  is  articulated  in  a  movable  manner  on  the  sacrum,  so  that  the 
two  heads  of  the  thigh  bones  seem  to  be  in  contact.  The  femur, 
or  thigh,  is  much  lengthened  and  slightly  curved,  and  the  bones 
of  the  leg  so  soldered  together  as  to  form  a  single  much  elongated 
bone. 

The  respiration  of  Reptiles  and  some  of  the  Batrachians,  like  that 
of  Birds  and  Mammals,  is  aerial  and  pulmonary,  but  it  is  much 
less  active.  Batrachians  have,  in  addition,  a  very  considerable 
cutaneous  respiration.  Some  of  them,  such  as  Toads,  absorb  more 
oxygen  through  the  skin  than  by  the  lungs.  Their  circulation  is 


INTELLIGENCE  OF  BATEACHIANS. 


13 


imperfect,  the  structure  of  the  heart  only  presenting  one  ventricle  ; 
the  blood,  returning  after  a  partial  regeneration  in  the  lungs, 
mingles  with  that  which  is  not  yet  revivified:  this  mixed  fluid 
is  launched  out 
into  the  economic 
system  of  the 
animal.  Thus 
Reptiles  and  Ba- 
trachians  are  said 
to  be  cold-blooded 
animals,  more  es- 
pecially the  for- 
mer, in  which  the 
respiratory  organs, 
which  are  a  con- 
stant source  of  in- 
terior heat,  are 
only  exercised 
very  feebly. 
Owing  to  this  low 

temperature  of  their  bodies,  reptiles  affect  warm  climates,  where 
the  sun  exercises  its  power  with  an  intensity  unknown  in  tem- 
perate regions ;  hence  it  is  that  they  abound  in  the  warm  lati- 
tudes of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  whilst  comparatively  few  are 
found  in  Europe.  This  is  also  the  cause  of  their  becoming  torpid 
during  the  winter  of  our  latitudes  :  not  having  sufficient  heat  in 
themselves  to  produce  reaction  against  the  external  cold,  they  fall 
asleep  for  many  months,  awakening  only  when  the  temperature 
permits  of  their  activity.  Serpents,  Lizards,  Tortoises,  Frogs,  are 
all  subjected  to  this  law  of  their  being.  Some  hybernate  upon  the 
earth,  under  heaps  of  stones,  or  in  holes ;  others  in  mud  at  the 
bottom  of  ponds.  The  senses  are  very  slightly  developed  in  these 
animals  ;  those  of  touch,  taste,  and  smell,  are  very  imperfect ;  that 
of  hearing,  though  less  obtuse,  leaves  much  to  be  desired ;  but 
sight  in  them  is  very  suitably  exercised  by  the  large  eyes,  with 
contractile  eyeballs,  which  enables  certain  reptiles — such,  for 
instance,  as  the  Geckos,  to  distinguish  objects  in  the  dark.  Most 
Reptiles  and  Batrachians  are  almost  devoid  of  voice :  Serpents, 


14  BATEACHIANS. 

however,  utter  a  sharp  hissing  noise,  some  species  of  Crocodiles 
howl  energetically,  the  Geckos  are  particularly  noisy,  and  Frogs 
have  a  well-known  croak.  In  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  the  brain 
is  small,  a  peculiarity  which  explains  their  slight  intelligence  and 
the  almost  entire  impossibility  of  teaching  them  anything.  They 
can,  it  is  true,  be  tamed ;  but  although  they  seem  to  know  indi- 
viduals, they  do  not  seem  to  be  susceptible  of  affection  :  the  slight 
compass  of  their  brain  renders  them  very  insensible,  and  this  insen- 
sibility to  pain  enables  them  to  support  mutilations  which  would 
prove  immediately  fatal  to  most  other  animals.  For  instance,  the 
Common  Lizard  frequently  breaks  its  tail  in  its  abrupt  movements. 
Does  this  disturb  him  ?  Not  at  all !  This  curtailment  of  his  being 
does  not  seem  to  affect  him ;  he  awaits  patiently  for  the  return  of 
the  organ,  which  complaisant  nature  renews  as  often  as  it  becomes 
necessary.  In  the  Crocodiles  and  Monitor  Lizards,  however,  a  muti- 
lated part  is  not  renewed,  and  the  renovated  tails  of  other  Lizards 
do  not  develop  bone.  In  some  instances,  the  eyes  may  be  put 
out  with  impunity^  or  part  of  the  head  may  be  cut  off;  these 
organs  will  be  replaced  or  made  whole  in  a  certain  time  with- 
out the  animal  having  ceased  to  perform  any  of  the  functions 
which  are  still  permitted  to  him  in  his  mutilated  state.  A 
Tortoise  will  continue  to  live  and  walk  for  six  months  after  it 
is  deprived  of  its  brain,  and  a  Salamander  has  been  seen  in  a  very 
satisfactory  state  although  its  head  was,  so  to  speak,  isolated  from 
the  trunk  by  a  ligature  tied  tightly  close  round  the  neck.  There  is 
another  curious  peculiarity  in  the  history  of  Reptiles  and  Batra- 
chians :  each  year  as  they  awake  from  their  state  of  torpor,  they 
slough  their  old  covering,  and  thus  each  year  renew  their  youth ; 
so  far  as  the  skin  is  concerned,  it  is  certain  that  they  retain  their 
youth  a  very  long  time.  Their  growth  is  slow,  and  continues 
almost  through  the  whole  duration  of  their  existence ;  they  are, 
moreover,  endowed  with  remarkable  longevity.  This  is  not  very 
astonishing,  if  we  consider  that  (at  least  in  our  latitudes)  they 
remain  torpid  for  several  months  yearly  ;  thus  using  up  less  of  the 
materials  of  life  than  most  animals,  they  ought,  consequently,  to 
attain  a  more  advanced  age.  The  activity  of  organization  in  Reptiles 
and  Batrachians  is  so  slight  that  their  stomachs  feel  less  of  the  exi- 
gencies of  hunger;  hence  they  rarely  take  nourishment ;  they  digest 


CHAEACTEEISTICS  OF  EEPTILES.  15 

their  food  with  equal  deliberation.  "With  the  exception  of  the 
Land  Tortoises,  whose  regimen  is  herbivorous,  most  reptiles  feed  on 
living  prey.  Some,  such  as  Lizards,  Frogs,  and  Toads,  prey  on 
worms,  insects,  small  terrestrial  or  aquatic  Molluscs  ;  others,  such 
as  Ophidians  and  Crocodiles,  attack  Birds,  and  even  Mammalia. 
Large  Serpents,  owing  to  the  distensibility  of  their  oesophagus, 
swallow  animals  much  larger  than  themselves.  The  Boa-con- 
strictor darts  upon  the  Deer,  binds  him  in  its  snaky  coils,  breaks 
his  bones,  and  little  by  little  swallows  him  entirely. 

Heptiles,  whether  Batrachians,  Ophidians,  or  Chelonians,  are 
mostly  oviparous,  sometimes  ovo-viviparous,  and  some  of  them 
are  very  prolific.  The  eggs  of  some  are  covered  with  a  cal- 
careous envelope,  as  in  the  Turtle.  Sometimes  they  are  soft, 
and  analogous  to  the  spawn  of  fish,  as  in  the  Batrachians. 
They  do  not  hatch  their  eggs  by  sitting  upon  them,  but  bury  them 
in  the  sand,  and  take  no  further  care  of  them,  trusting  to  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  which  hatches  them  in  due  course.  To  this  the 
Pythons  form  a  partial  exception.  Batrachians  content  them- 
selves with  diffusing  their  spawn  or  eggs  in  the  marshy  waters 
or  ponds,  or  they  bear  them  on  their  backs  until  the  time 
of  hatching  approaches.  On  leaving  the  egg  the  young  Tor- 
toises have  to  provide  immediately  for  their  own  wants,  for 
the  parents  are  not  present  to  bring  them  their  nourishment  or 
to  defend  them  against  their  enemies.  This  parental  protection, 
so  manifest  among  the  superior  animals,  does  not  exist  in  ovi- 
parous species  ;  that  is,  in  those  whose  eggs  are  not  hatched  in 
the  body  of  the  mother.  The  young  are,  so  to  speak,  produced 
in  a  living  state,  and  fully  prepared  for  the  battle  of  life.  The 
loves  of  these  animals  present  none  of  that  character  of  mutual 
affection  and  tender  sympathy  which  distinguishes  the  Mammalia 
and  Birds.*  When  they  have  ensured  the  perpetuity  of  their 
species,  they  separate,  and  betake  themselves  again  to  their 
solitary  existence. 

Some  reptiles  attain  dimensions  truly  extraordinary,  which 
render  them  at  times  very  formidable.  Turtles  are  met  with 
which  weigh  as  much  as  sixteen  hundred  pounds,  and  the  carapace 

*  Birds,  however,  are  oviparous,  and  nevertheless  manifest  the  strongest  parental 
affection. — ED. 


16 


BATEACHIANS. 


of  one  of  these  measured  as  much  as  six  feet  in  length.  The  size 
of  an  ordinary  Crocodile  is  from  eight  to  nine  feet,  but  they  have 
been  seen  twenty-four  and  even  thirty  feet  long,  with  a  mouth 
opening  from  six  to  eight  feet  wide. 

In  Ohelonians  the  surface  of  the  skull  is  continuous  without 
movable  articulations.  The  head  is  oval  in  the  Land  Tortoises,  the 
interval  between  the  eyes  large  and  convex,  the  opening  of  the 


.Fig.  3.— Skeleton  of  a  Turtle 

nostrils  large,  the  orbits  round.  The  general  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  Tortoises  is  the  external  position  of  the  bones  of 
the  thorax,  at  once  enveloping  with  a  cuirass  or  buckler  the 
muscular  portion  of  the  frame,  and  protecting  the  pelvis  and 
shoulder  bones.  The  ribs  are  inserted  by  means  of  sutures  into 
these  plates,  and  united  with  each  other.  A  three-branched 
shoulder  and  cylindrical  shoulder-blade  are  characteristic  of  the 
Tortoises. 


CIIAEACTEEISTICS  OF  EEPTILES.  17 

In  tropical  regions  enormous  Serpents  are  found,  which  are  as 
bulky  as  a  man's  thigh,  and  are  said  to  be  not  less  than  forty  feet  in 
length.  Roman  annals  mention  one  forty  feet  long,  which  Regulus 
encountered  in  Africa  during  the  Punic  wars,  and  which  is  fabu- 
lously said  to  have  arrested  the  march  of  his  army.  These  gigantic 
reptiles  are  not,  however,  the  enemies  which  man  has  most  cause 
to  fear ;  their  very  size  draws  attention  to  them  in  such  a,  manner 
that  it  is  easy  to  avoid  them.  It  is  quite  otherwise  with  Vipers 
twenty  or  thirty  inches  long ;  they  glide  after  their  prey  without 
being  seen,  strike  it  cruelly  with  their  fangs,  leaving  in  the  wound 
a  venom  which  produces  death  with  startling  rapidity.  Doubtless 
this  fatal  power  was  the  origin  of  the  worship  which  was  ren- 
dered to  certain  reptiles  by  barbarous  nations  of  old,  and  these 
animals  are  indeed  still  venerated  by  many  savage  races.  The  whole 
class  of  Reptiles  are,  for  the  most  part,  calculated  to  inspire 
feelings  of  disgust,  and  such  has  been  the  sentiment  in  all  ages. 
Few  people  can  suppress  a  movement  of  fright  at  the  sight  of  an 
ordinary  Snake,  Lizard,  or  Frog,  notwithstanding  that  they  are 
most  inoffensive  animals.  Several  causes  concur  to  this  aversion. 
In  the  first  place  the  low  temperature  of  their  bodies,  contact 
with  which  communicates  an  involuntary  shudder  in  the  person 
who  tries  to  touch  one  of  them ;  then  the  moisture  which  exudes 
from  the  skins  of  Frogs,  Toads,  and  Salamanders ;  their  fixed  and 
strong  gaze,  again,  impresses  one  painfully  in  thinking  of  them ; 
the  odour  which  some  of  them  exhale  is  so  disgusting,  that  it 
alone  sometimes  causes  fainting ;  add  to  this  the  fear  of  a  real 
or  often  exaggerated  danger,  and  we  shall  have  the  secret  of  the 
sort  of  instinctive  horror  which  is  felt  by  many  people  at  the 
sight  of  most  reptiles.  Nevertheless,  the  injurious  species  are  ex- 
ceptional amongst  reptiles,  and  there  are  not  any  amongst  the 
Batrachians,  for  it  is  altogether  a  mistake  to  take  for  venom  the 
fluid  which  the  toad  discharges.*  It  is  true  that  these  animals 
are  repulsive  in  appearance,  we  can  nevertheless  recognise  their 
services  in  the  economy  of  nature.  Inhabitants  of  slimy  mud  and 

*  The  Necturus,  a  Siren-like  animal  inhabiting  the  lakes  of  North  America,  has 
series  of  small,   fang-like  teeth  abo\«)  and  below,  which  are   stated  to  give   an 
envenomed  bite. — "Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society"  for  1857,  p.  61.     For 
poison-organs  in  certain  fishes,  vide  the  same  publication  for  1861,  p.  155. — ED. 

C 


18  BATEACHIANS. 

impure  swamps,  they  make  incessant  war  upon  the  worms  and 
insects  which  abound  in  those  localities.  In  their  turn  they  find 
implacable  enemies  in  the  birds  of  the  marshes,  which  check  their 
prodigious  multiplication.  In  this  manner  equilibrium  is  main- 
tained. 

Some  of  the  animals  which  now  occupy  our  attention  render 
more  direct  service  to  man  by  the  part  which  they  fulfil  at  his 
table.  Frogs  are  eaten  in  the  south  of  France,  Italy,  and  many 
other  countries  ;  and  in  some  parts  of  the  south  of  France,  Adders 
are  eaten  under  the  name  of  Hedge-eels.  We  know  the  favour  in 
which  Turtles  are  held  in  England,  where  turtle- soup  is  considered 
a  dish  only  fit  for  merchant  princes.  In  some  countries  Iguanas, 
Crocodiles,  and  even  Serpents  are  eaten.  Yiper-broth,  which  was 
known  to  Hippocrates,  is  discontinued  as  an  article  of  food. 

As  we  have  already  remarked,  the  peculiar  nature  of  their 
organization  leads  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  to  seek  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  earth.  It  is  in  those  regions  that  they  attain  the 
enormous  dimensions  which  distinguish  certain  Serpents ;  there, 
too,  they  secrete  their  most  subtle  poisons,  and  display  the  most 
lively  colours — which,  if  less  rich  than  those  of  Birds  and  Fishes, 
are  not  less  startling  in  effect.  Many  Serpents  and  Lizards  glitter 
with  radiant  metallic  reflections,  and  some  of  them  present  ex- 
tremely varied  combinations  of  colour.  Chameleons  are  found 
in  the  same  localities,  but  in  the  Old  World  only ;  these  and  some 
other  Lizards  are  remarkable  for  changing  their  colour,  a  pheno- 
menon which  is  also  seen  among  the  Frogs,  but  in  a  smaller  degree. 

Reptiles  and  Batrachians  were  numerous  in  the  early  ages 
of  our  globe.  It  was  then  that  those  monstrous  Saurians  lived, 
whose  dimensions  even  are  startling  to  our  imagination.  The> 
forms  of  the  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  of  the  early  ages  of  the 
earth  were  much  more  numerous,  their  dimensions  much  greater, 
and  their  means  of  existence  more  varied  than  those  of  the 
present  time.  Our  existent  Reptiles  are  very  degenerate  descen- 
dants of  those  of  the  great  geological  periods,  unless  we  except 
the  Crocodiles  and  the  gigantic  Boas  and  Pythons.  Whilst  the 
Reptiles  of  former  ages  disported  their  gigantic  masses,  and 
spread  terror  amongst  other  living  creatures,  alike  by  their  for- 
midable armature  and  their  prodigious  numbers,  they  are  now 


FEOGS.  19 

reduced  to  a  much  lower  number  of  species.  There  are  now  but 
little  more  than  1,500  species  of  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  described, 
and  only  100  of  those  belong  to  Europe.* 

I.  BATRACIIIA. 

Animals  which  compose  this  class  have  long  been  confounded 
with  reptiles,  from  which  they  differ  in  one  fundamental  pecu- 
liarity in  their  organization.  At  their  birth  they  respire  by 
means  of  gills,  and  consequently  resemble  fishes.  In  a  physio- 
logical point  of  view,  at  a  certain  time  in  their  lives,  these 
animals  are  fishes  in  form  as  well  as  in  their  habits  and  orga- 
nization. As  age  progresses,  they  undergo  permanent  meta- 
morphosis —  they  acquire  lungs,  and  thenceforth  an  aerial 
respiration.  It  is,  then,  easy  to  understand  that  these  animals 
hold  a  doubtful  rank,  as  they  have  long  done,  amongst  Reptiles, 
which  are  animals  with  an  aerial  respiration ;  they  ought  to, form  a 
separate  class  of  Vertebrates,  f 

Batrachians  establish  a  transitional  link  between  Fishes  and 
Reptiles — they  are,  as  it  were,  a  bond  of  union  between  those  two 
groups  of  animals.  In  the  adult  state  Batrachians  are  cold-blooded 
animals  with  incomplete  circulation,  inactive  respiration,  and  the 
skin  is  bare.  In  the  introductory  section  to  this  chapter  we  have 
given  the  general  characteristics  which  belong  to  them.  The 
Frogs  —  Tree  Frogs,  Toads,  Surinam  Toads,  Salamanders,  and 
Newts — are  the  representatives  of  the  principal  families  of 
Batrachians  of  which  we  propose  giving  the  history. 

The  Frogs,  Rana,  have  been  irreparably  injured  by  their  resem- 
blance to  the  Toads.  This  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  an  unfa- 
vourable prejudice  against  these  innocent  little  Batrachians.  Had 
the  Toad  not  existed,  the  Frog  would  appear  to  us  as  an  animal 
of  a  curious  form,  and  would  interest  us  by  the  phenomena  of 
transformation  which  it  undergoes  in  the  different  epochs  of  its 
development.  We  should  see  in  it  a  useful  inoffensive  animal  of 
slender  form,  with  delicate  and  supple  limbs,  arrayed  in  that 

*   Vide  subsequent  notes  on  this  subject,  in  p.  31,  &c. 

t  They  are  regarded  by  some  naturalists  as  a  sub-class  of  Fishes  rather  than  of 
Reptiles,  as  piscine  forms  certain  of  which  develop  to  a  parallelism  with  the  ordinary 
reptilian  condition  of  advancement ;  their  reproduction  especially  favouring  this 
view  or  idea. — ED. 

c2 


20 


BATBACHIANS. 


green  colour  which  is  so  pleasant  to  the  eye,  and  which  mingles 
so  harmoniously  with  the  carpeting  of  our  fields. 

The  body  of  the  Edible  Frog,  liana  esculenta  (Fig.  4),  some- 
times attains  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  muzzle  to  the  end  of  the  hind  feet.  The  muzzle 
terminates  in  a  point ;  the  eyes  are  large,  brilliant,  and  sur- 
rounded with  a  circle  of  gold  colour.  The  mouth  is  large ; 
the  body,  which  is  contracted  behind,  presents  a  tubercular  and 
rugged  back.  It  is  of  a  more  or  less  decided  green  colour 
on  the  upper,  and  whitish  on  the  under  parts.  These  two  colours, 


I'ig.  4.  -The  Edible  Frog  (liana  esculenta). 

which  harmonize  well,  are  relieved  by  three  yellow  lines,  which 
extend  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  and  by  scattered  black 
marbling.  It  is,  therefore,  much  to  be  regretted  that  prejudice 
should  cause  some  at  least  of  us  to  turn  awav  from  this  pretty 
little  hopping  animal;  when  met  with  in  the  country ;  with  its 
slight  dimensions,  quick  movements,  and  graceful  attitudes.  For 


FROGS.  21 

ourselves,  we  cannot  see  the  banks  of  our  streams  embellished  by 
the  colours  and  animated  with  the  gambols  of  these  little  animals 
without  pleasure.  Why  should  we  not  follow  with  our  eyes  their 
movements  in  our  ponds,  where  they  enliven  the  solitude  without 
disturbing  its  tranquillity.  Frogs  often  leave  the  water,  not  only 
to  seek  their  nourishment,  but  to  warm  themselves  in  the  sun. 
When  they  repose  thus,  with  the  head  lifted  up,  the  body  raised 
in  front  and  supported  upon  the  hind  feet,  the  attitude  is  more 
that  of  an  animal  of  higher  organization  than  that  of  a  mean  and 
humble  Batrachian.  Frogs  feed  on  larvae,  aquatic  insects,  worms, 
and  small  mollusks.  They  choose  their  prey  from  living  and 
moving  creatures ;  for  they  set  a  watch,  and  when  they  perceive 
it,  they  spring  on  it  with  great  vivacity.  A  large  Indian  species 
(R.  tigrina)  has  been  seen  to  prey  occasionally  upon  young  Spar- 
rows. Far  from  being  dumb,  like  many  oviparous  quadrupeds, 
Frogs  have  the  gift  of  voice.  The  females  only  make  a  pecu- 
liar low  growl,  produced  by  the  air  which  vibrates  in  the  interior 
of  two  vocal  pouches  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  but  the 
cry  of  the  male  is  sonorous,  and  heard  at  a  great  distance  :  it 
is  a  croak  which  the  Greek  poet,  Aristophanes,  endeavoured  to 
imitate  by  the  inharmonic  consonants,  brekekurkoax,  coax!  It 
is  principally  during  rain,  or  in  the  evenings  and  mornings 
of  hot  days,  that  Frogs  utter  their  confused  sounds.  Their  chant- 
ing in  monotonous  chorus  makes  this  sad  melody  very  tiresome. 
Under  the  feudal  system,  during  the  "good  old  times"  of  the 
middle  ages,  which  some  people  would  like  to  bring  back  again, 
the  country  seats  of  many  of  the  nobility  and  country  squires  were 
surrounded  by  ditches  half  full  of  water,  all  inhabited  by  a  popu- 
lation of  croaking  Frogs.  Yassals  and  villains  were  ordered  to 
beat  the  water  in  these  ditches  morning  and  evening  in  order  to 
keep  off  the  Frogs  which  troubled  the  sleep  of  the  lords  and 
masters  of  the  houses.  Independent  of  the  resounding  and  pro- 
longed cries  of  which  we  have  spoken,  at  certain  times  the  male 
Frog  calls  the  female  in  a  dull  voice,  so  plaintive  that  the  Romans 
described  it  by  the  words  "ololo,"  or  "ololygo."  "Truly,"  says 
Lacepede,  "  the  accent  of  love  is  always  mingled  with  some 
sweetness." 

When  autumn  arrives  Frogs  cease  from  their  habitual  voracity, 


22 


BATEACHIANS. 


and  no  longer  eat.  To  protect  themselves  from  the  cold,  they  bury 
themselves  deeply  in  the  mud :  troops  of  them  joining  together  in 
the  same  place.  Thus  hidden,  they  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of 
torpor  ;  sometimes  the  cold  freezes  their  bodies  without  killing  them. 
This  state  of  torpor  gives  way  in  the  first  days  of  spring.  During 
the  month  of  March,  Frogs  begin  to  awake  and  to  move  them- 
selves ;  this  is  their  breeding  season.  Their  race  is  so  prolific  that 


MM 


Fig.  5. — Development  of  the  Tadpole. 

1.  Egg  of  the  Frog.  2.  The  Egg  fecundated,  and  surrounded  by  its  visicule.  3.  First  state  of  the 
Tadpole.  4.  Appearance  of  the  breathing  gills.  5.  Their  development.  6.  Formation  of  the  hind 
feet.  7.  Formation  of  the  fore  feet,  and  decay  of  the  gills.  8.  Development  of  the  lungs,  and 
reduction  of  the  tail.  9.  The  perfect  Frog. 

a  female  can  produce  from  six  to  twelve  hundred  eggs  annually. 
These  eggs  are  globular,  and  are  in  form  a  glutinous  and  trans- 
parent spheroid,  at  the  centre  of  which  is  a  little  blackish 
globule  ;  the  eggs  float,  and  form  like  chaplets  on  the  surface  of 
the  water. 

All  who  have  observed  the  small  ponds   and  ditches  in  the 
country  at  this  season,   will  have  seen  these  light  and  elegant 


TADPOLE  OF  THE  FROG.  2? 

crafts  swimming  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  After  a  few  days, 
more  or  less  according  to  the  temperature,  the  little  black  spot 
which  is  the  embryo  of  the  egg,  and  which  has  developed  itself 
in  the  interior  of  the  glairy  mass  which  envelops  it,  disengages 
itself  and  shoots  forth  into  the  water :  this  is  the  tadpole  of  the 
Frog. 

The  body  of  the  tadpole  is  oval  in  shape,  and  terminates  in  a 
long  flat  tail,  which  forms  a  true  fin ;  on  each  side  of  the  neck 
are  two  large  gills,  in  shape  like  a  plume  of  feathers ;  the  tadpole 
has  no  legs.  These  gills  soon  begin  to  wither,  without  aquatic 
respiration  ceasing,  however ;  for,  besides  these,  the  tadpole  pos- 
sesses interior  gills  like  fishes.  Soon  after,  the  legs  begin  to  show 
themselves,  the  hind  legs  appearing  first;  they  acquire  a  con- 
siderable length  before  the  fore  feet  begin  to  show  themselves. 
These  develop  themselves  under  the  skin,  which  they  presently 
pierce  through.  When  the  legs  have  appeared,  the  tail  begins 
to  fade,  and,  little  by  little,  withers  away,  until  in  the  perfect 
animal  it  entirely  disappears.  About  the  same  time  the  lungs 
become  developed,  and  assume  their  functions.  In  Fig.  5 
may  be  traced  the  successive  phases  of  its  transformation  from 
the  egg  to  the  tadpole,  till  we  finally  reach  the  perfect  Batrachian. 
Through  these  admirable  modifications  we  see  the  Fish,  little 
by  little,  become  a  Batrachian.  In  order  to  follow  this  strange 
metamorphosis,  it  suffices  to  gather  some  Frog's  eggs,  and  to  place 
them  with  some  aquatic  herbs  in  an  aquarium,  or  in  a  globe  with 
Gold  and  Silver  Fish ;  it  there  constitutes  a  most  interesting  spec- 
tacle, and  we  advise  our  readers  to  give  themselves  this  instructive 
and  easy  lesson  in  natural  history. 

At  present,  there  exist  two  species  of  Frog  in  Europe:  the 
Green  or  Edible  Frog,  and  the  Common  Frog.  The  Green  Frog  is 
that  which  we  have  described,  and  of  which  we  have  given  a 
representation  in  Fig.  4.  They  are  found  in  running  streams  and 
stagnant  waters.  It  is  this  species  to  which  La  Fontaine  alludes  in 
one  of  his  fables.  Common  Frogs  are  smaller  than  the  preceding  : 
they  inhabit  damp  places  in  fields  and  vineyards,  and  only  return 
to  the  water  to  breed  or  to  winter. 

The  flesh  of  the  Edible  Frog  is  very  tender,  white,  and  delicate. 
As  an  article  of  food,  it  is  lightly  esteemed  by  some,  but  unde- 


24 


BATKACHIANS. 


servedly  so.  Prepared  in  tlie  same  manner,  Green  Frogs  closely 
resemble  very  young  fowls  in  taste.  In  almost  all  parts  of  France 
Frogs  are  disdained  as  articles  of  food ;  it  is  only  in  the  south  that 
a  taste  for  them  is  openly  avowed,  and  there  Frogs  are  sought  for 
and  brought  to  market.  Therefore,  I  never  could  comprehend 
how  the  notion  popular  in  England,  when  it  is  wished  to  express 
contempt  for  Frenchmen,  should  be  to  call  them  Frog- eaters.  It 
is  a  reproach  which  might  be  addressed  to  Provencals  and  Lan- 
guedocians  like  the  author  of  this  work,  but  not  at  all  to  the 
majority  of  Frenchmen. 

The  Green  Tree  Frog  is  easily  distinguished  by  having  little  plates 
under  its  toes.     These  organs  are  a  species  of  sucker,  by  means  of 


Fig.  6. -Green  Tree  Frog  (Hyia). 

which  the  animal  is  enabled,  like  the  house-fly,  to  cling  strongly  to 
any  surface,  however  smooth  and  polished  it  may  be.  The  smoothest 
branch,  even  the  lower  surface  of  a  leaf,  forms  a  sufficient  hold 
and  support  to  these  delicate  organs. 

The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  of  a  beautiful  green,  the  lower 
part,  where  little  tuberculi  are  visible,  is  white.  A  yellow  line, 
lightly  bordered  with  violet,  extends  on  each  side  of  the  head 
and  back,  from  the  muzzle  to  the  hind  legs.  A  similar  line  runs 
from  the  jaw  to  the  front  legs.  The  head  is  short,  the  mouth 
round,  and  the  eyes  raised.  Much  smaller  than  the  ordinary  Frog, 


GREEN  TREE  FROG.  25 

they  are  far  more  graceful.  During  the  summer  they  live  upon  the 
leaves  of  trees  in  damp  woods,  and  pass  the  winter  at  the  bottom 
of  some  pond,  which  they  do  not  leave  till  the  month  of  May, 
after  having  deposited  their  eggs.  They  feed  on  small  insects, 
worms,  and  mollusks ;  and  in  order  to  catch  them,  they  will 
remain  in  the  same  place  an  entire  day.  During  the  glare  of  the 
sun,  they  remain  hidden  amongst  the  leaves ;  but  when  twilight 
approaches,  they  move  about  and  climb  up  the  trees.  We  must 
repeat  of  these  Green  Tree  Frogs  what  we  have  already  said  of 
Frogs.  Get  rid  of  all  prejudice  towards  their  kind,  and  then  you 
will  examine  with  pleasure  their  lively  colours,  which  harmonize 
so  well  with  the  green  leaves  ;  remark  their  tricks  and  ambus- 
cades :  follow  them  in  their  little  hunting  excursions ;  see  them 
suspended  upside  down  upon  the  leaves  in  .a  manner  which 
appears  marvellous  to  those  who  are  not  aware  of  the  organs 
which  have  been  given  to  enable  them  to  attach  themselves  to  the 
smoothest  bodies :  and  it  will  give  as  much  pleasure  as  can  be 
derived  from  the  consideration  of  the  plumage,  habits,  and  flight 
of  birds.  The  croak  of  the  Green  Tree  Frogs  is  like  that  of  other 
Frogs,  although  less  sharp  and  sometimes  stronger  in  the  males ; 
it  can  be  pretty  well  translated  by  the  syllables  caraccarac,  pro- 
nounced from  the  throat.  This  cry  is  principally  heard  in  the 
morning  and  evening ;  then,  when  one  Frog  begins  to  utter  its 
croak,  all  the  others  imitate  it.  In  the  quiet  night  the  voice  of 
a  troop  of  these  little  Batrachians  sometimes  reaches  to  an  enor- 
mous distance. 

Toads,  B-ufo,  are  squat  and  disagreeable  in  shape  :  it  is  difficult 
to  comprehend  why  nature,  which  has  bestowed  elegance  and  a 
kind  of  grace  upon  Frogs  and  Tree  Frogs,  has  stamp  3d  the  Toad 
with  so  repulsive  a  form.  These  much  despised  beings  occupy 
a  large  place  in  the  order  of  nature :  they  are  distributed  with  pro- 
fusion, but  one  cannot  say  exactly  to  what  end ;  their  movements  are 
heavy  and  sluggish.  In  colour  they  are  usually  of  a  livid  grey, 
spotted  with  brown  and  yellow,  and  disfigured  by  a  number  of  pus- 
tules or  warts.  A  thick  and  hard  skin  covers  a  flat  back;  its  large 
belly  always  appears  to  be  swollen ;  the  head  a  little  broader  than 
the  rest  of  its  body ;  the  mouth  and  the  eyes  are  large  and  pro- 
minent. It  lives  chiefly  at  the  bottom  of  ditches,  especially  those 


26 


BATEACHIANS. 


where  stagnant  and  corrupt  water  has  lain  a  long  time.  It  is  found 
in  dung  heaps,  caves,  and  in  dark  and  damp  parts  of  woods.  One 
has  often  been  disagreeably  surprised  on  raising  some  great  stone 
to  discover  a  Toad  cowering  against  the  earth,  frightful  to  see, 
but  timorous,  seeking  to  avoid  the  notice  of  strangers.  It  is  in 
these  different  obscure  and  sometimes  foetid  places  of  refuge  that 
the  Toad  shuts  itself  up  during  the  day ;  going  out  in  the  evening, 
when  our  common  species  moves  by  slight  hops ;  whilst  another, 
the  Natterjack  Toad,  Bufo  calamita,  only  crawls,  though  some- 
what fastly.  When  seized,  it  voids  into  the  hand  a  quantity  of 
limpid  water  imbibed  through  the  pores  of  its  skin  ;  but  if  more 


Fig.  7. — The  Common  Toad  (Uufo  vulgar  is). 

irritated,   a  milky  and  venemous  humour  issues  from  the  glands 
of  its  back. 

One  peculiarity  of  its  structure  offers  a  defence  from  outward 
attacks.  Its  very  extensible  skin  adheres  feebly  to  the  muscles, 
and  at  the  will  of  the  animal  a  large-  quantity  of  air  enters 
between  this  integument  and  the  flesh,  which  distends  the  body, 
and  fills  the  vacant  space  with  an  elastic  bed  of  gas,  by  means  of 
which  it  is  less  sensible  to  blows.  Toads  feed  upon  insects,  worms, 
and  small  mollusks.  In  fine  evenings,  at  certain  seasons  especially, 
they  may  be  heard  uttering  a  plaintive  monotonous  sound.  They 
assemble  in  ponds,  or  even  in  simple  puddles  of  water,  where  they 


TOADS.  27 

breed  and  deposit  their  eggs.  When  hatched,  the  young  Toads  go 
through  the  same  metamorphosis  as  do  the  tadpoles  of  the  Frogs. 

Their  simple  lives,  though  very  inactive,  are  nevertheless  very 
enduring ;  they  respire  little,  are  susceptible  of  hibernation,  and 
can  remain  for  a  considerable  time  shut  up  in  a  very  confined 
place. 

It  is  proper,  however,  to.  caution  the  reader  against  believing 
all  that  has  been  written  about  the  longevity  of  Toads.  Neither 
must  implicit  faith  be  given  to  the  discovery  of  the  living  animal 
(Fig.  7)  in  the  centre  of  stones.  "  That  Toads,  Frogs,  and 
Newts,  occasionally  issue  from  stones  broken  in  a  quarry  or  in 
sinking  wells,  and  even  from  coal- strata  at  the  bottom  of  a  mine," 
is  true  enough;  but,  as  Dr.  Buckland  observes,  "the  evidence  is 
never  perfect  to  show  that  these  Amphibians  were  entirely  enclosed 
in  a  solid  rock;  no  examination  is  made  until  the  creature  is  dis- 
covered by  the  breaking  of  the  mass  in  which  it  was  contained,  and 
then  it  is  too  late  to  ascertain  whether  there  was  any  hole  or  crevice 
by  which  it  might  have  entered."  These  considerations  led 
Dr.  Buckland  to  undertake  certain  experiments  to  test  the  fact. 
He  caused  blocks  of  coarse  oolitic  limestone  and  sandstone  to  be 
prepared  with  cells  of  various  sizes,  in  which  he  enclosed  Toads  of 
different  ages.  The  small  Toads  enclosed  in  the  sandstone  were 
found  to  die  at  the  end  of  thirteen  months  ;  the  same  fate  befell  the 
larger  ones  during  the  second  year  :  they  were  watched  through  the 
glass  covers  of  their  cells,  and  were  never  seen  in  a  state  of  torpor, 
but  at  each  successive  examination  they  had  become  more  meagre, 
until  at  last  they  were  found  dead.  This  was  probably  too  severe 
a  test  for  the  poor  creatures,  the  glass  cover  implying  a  degree  of 
hardness  and  dryness  not  natural  to  half  amphibious  Toads.  More- 
over, it  is  certain  that  both  Toads  and  Frogs  possess  a  singular  faci- 
lity for  concealing  themselves  in  the  smallest  crevices  of  the  earth, 
or  in  the  smallest  anfractuosities  of  stones  placed  in  dark  places. 

This  animal,  so  repulsive  in  form,  has  been  furnished  by 
nature  with  a  most  efficient  defensive  armature;  namely,  an 
acrid  secretion  which  will  be  described  farther  on.  It  is  a 
bad  leaper,  an  obscure  and  solitary  creature,  which  shuns  the 
sight  of  man,  as  if  it  comprehended  the  blot  it  is  on  the  fair 
face  of  creation.  It  is,  nevertheless,  susceptible  of  education,  and 


28 


BATEACHIANS. 


has  occasionally  been  tamed  ;  but  these  occasions  have  been  rare. 
Pennant,  the  zoologist,  relates  some  curious  details  respecting  a 
poor  Toad,  which  took  refuge  under  the  staircase  of  a  house.  It 
was  accustomed  to  come  every  evening  into  a  dining-room  near  to 
the  place  of  its  retreat.  When  it  saw  the  light  it  allowed  itself  to 
be  placed  on  a  table,  where  they  gave  it  worms,  wood-lice,  and 
various  insects.  As  no  attempt  was  made  to  injure  it,  there  were 
no  signs  of  irritation  when  it  was  touched,  and  it  soon  became, 
from  its  gentleness  (the  gentleness  of  a  Toad !),  the  object  of 


Fig.  8. — Surinam  Toad  (Pipa  monstrosa). 

general  curiosity  ;  even  ladies  stopped  to  see  this  strange  animal. 
The  poor  Batrachian  lived  thus  for  six  and  thirty  years ;  and  it 
would  probably  have  lived  much  longer  had  not  a  Crow,  tamed, 
and,  like  it,  a  guest  in  the  house,  attacked  him  at  the  entrance 
of  his  hole,  and  put  out  one  of  his  eyes.  From  that  time  he 
languished,  and  died  at  the  end  of  a  year. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Toads,  Bufo,  the  Surinam  Toad,  Pipa,  holds 
its   place.      Its  physiognomy  is  at  once  hideous  and   peculiarly 


SUEINAM  TOAD.  29 

odd :  the  head  is  flat  and  triangular,  a  very  short  neck  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  trunk,  which  is  itself  depressed  and  flattened. 
Its  eyes  are  extremely  small,  of  an  olive,  more  or  less  bright, 
dashed  with  small  reddish  spots.  It  has  no  tongue.  There  is 
only  one  species  of  Pipa,  viz.  the  American  Pipa  (Fig.  8),  which 
inhabits  Guiana  arid  several  provinces  of  Brazil.  The  most 
remarkable  feature  in  this  Batrachian  is  its  manner  of  reproduction. 
It  is  oviparous,  and  when  the  female  has  laid  her  eggs,  the  male 
takes  them,  and  piles  upon  the  back  of  his  companion  these, 
his  hopes  of  posterity.  The  female,  bearing  the  fertilized  eggs 
upon  her  back,  reaches  the  marshes,  and  there  immerses  herself ; 
but  the  skin  of  the  back  which  supports  the  eggs  soon  becomes 
inflamed,  erysipelatous  inflammation  follows,  causing  an  irritation, 
produced  by  the  presence  of  eggs,  which  are  then  absorbed  into 
the  skin,  and  disappear  in  the  integument  until  hatched. 

The  young  Pipa  Toads  are  rapidly  developed  in  these  dorsal 
cells,  but  they  are  extricated  at  a  less  advanced  stage  than  almost 
any  other  vertebrate  animal.  After  extrication,  the  tadpole  grows 
rapidly,  and  the  chief  change  of  form  is  witnessed  in  the  gills. 
As  to  the  mother  Batrachian,  it  is  only  after  she  has  got  rid  of 
her  progeny  that  she  abandons  her  aquatic  residence.* 

The  Batrachians  differ  essentially  from  all  other  orders  of  HEP- 
TILIA.  They  have  no  ribs  ;  their  skin  is  naked,  being  without  scales. 
The  young,  or  tadpoles,  when  first  hatched,  breathe  by  means  of 
gills,  being  at  this  stage  quite  unlike  their  parents.  These  gills,  or 
branchiae,  disappear  in  the  tailless  Batrachians,  as  the  Frogs  and 
Toads,  in  which  the  tail  disappears,  are  called.  In  the  tadpoles  the 
mouth  is  destitute  of  a  tongue,  this  organ  only  making  its  appear- 
ance when  the  fore  limbs  are  evolved.  The  habits  also  change. 
The  tadpole  no  longer  feeds  on  decomposing  substances,  and  cannot 
live  long  immersed  in  water.  The  branchise  disappear  one  after  the 
other,  by  absorption,  giving  place  to  pulmonary  vessels.  The  prin- 
cipal vascular  arches  are  converted  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  and 
the  blood  is  diverted  from  the  largest  of  the  branchiae  to  the  lungs. 

*  The  same  phenomena  occur,  with  certain  variations,  in  some  other  American 
Batrachians,  as  the  Nototrema  marsupiatum  of  Mexico,  and  the  Notode'pliys  ovifera  of 
Venezuela.  In  the  Alytcs  obstetricans  of  France,  Switzerland,  and  the  Rhine 
district,  the  ova  (about  sixty  in  number)  adhere  to  the  hind-legs  of  the  male  parent ! 

—ED. 


30  BATEACHIANS. 

In  the  meantime  the  respiratory  cavity  is  formed,  the  communicat- 
ing duct  advances  with  the  elongation  of  the  oesophagus,  and  at 
the  point  of  communication  the  larynx  is  ultimately  developed. 
The  lungs  themselves  extend  as  simple  elongated  sacs,  slightly  re- 
ticulated on  the  inner  surface  backwards  into  the  abdominal  cavity. 
These  receptacles  being  formed,  air  passes  into  and  expands  the 
cavity,  and  respiration  is  commenced,  the  fore  limbs  are  liberated 
from  the  branchial  chambers,  and  the  first  transformation  is 
accomplished. 

The  alleged  venemous  character  of  the  Common  Toad  has  been 
altogether  rejected  by  many  naturalists ;  but  Dr.  Davy  found  that 
venemous  matter  was  really  contained  in  follicles  in  the  true  skin, 
and  chiefly  about  the  head  and  shoulders,  but  also  distributed 
generally  over  the  body,  and  on  the  extremities  in  considerable 
quantities.  Dr.  Davy  found  it  extremely  acrid,  but  innocuous 
when  introduced  into  the  circulation.  A  chicken  inoculated 
with  it  was  unaffected,  and  Dr.  Davy  conjectures  that  this  acrid 
liquid  is  the  animal's  defence  against  carnivorous  Mammalia.  A 
dog  when  urged  to  attack  one  will  drop  it  from  its  mouth  in  a 
manner  which  leaves  no  doubt  that  it  had  felt  the  effects  of  the 
secretion. 

In  opposition  to  these  opinions  the  story  of  a  lad  in  France  is 
told,  who  had  thrust  his  slightly  wounded  hand  into  a  hole,  intend- 
ing to  seize  a  Lizard  which  he  had  seen  enter.  In  place  of  the 
Lizard  he  brought  out  a  large  Toad.  While  holding  the  animal, 
it  discharged  a  milky  yellowish  white  fluid  which  introduced  itself 
into  the  wound  in  his  hand,  and  this  poison  occasioned  his  death  ; 
but  then  it  is  not  stated  that  the  boy  was  previously  healthy. 

Warm  and  temperate  regions  with  abundant  moisture  are  the 
localities  favourable  to  all  the  Batrachians.  Extreme  cold,  as 
well  as  dry  heat,  and  all  sudden  changes  are  alike  unfavourable 
to  them.  In  temperate  climates,  where  the  winters  are  severe, 
they  bury  themselves  under  the  earth,  or  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom 
of  pools  and  ponds,  and  there  pass  the  season  without  air  or  food, 
till  returning  spring  calls  them  forth. 

The  species  of  this  family  are  very  numerous.  MM.  Dumeril 
and  Bibron  state  that  the  Frogs,  Rana,  number  fifty-one  species ; 
the  Tree  Frogs,  Hyla,  sixty-four  ;  and  the  Toads,  Bufo,  thirty-five. 


SALAMANDEES.  31 

They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  smallest  portion 
being  found  in  Europe,  and  the  largest  in  America.  Oceania  is 
chiefly  supplied  with  the  Tree  Frogs.  There  are  several  curious 
forms  in  Australia,  and  one  species  only  is  known  to  inhabit  New 
Zealand.  The  enormous  fossil  Labyrinthodon,  of  a  remote  geo- 
logical era,  is  believed  to  have  been  nearly  related  to  these 
comparatively  very  diminutive  Batrachians.* 

TAILED  BATRACHIANS, 

Sometimes  called  Urodeles,  from  oupa,  "  tail,"  817X05,  "  manifest." 
The  constant  external  character  which  distinguishes  these  Amphi- 
bians in  a  general  manner  is  the  presence  of  a  tail  during  the 
whole  stage  of  their  existence.  Nevertheless  they  are  subject  to 
the  metamorphoses  to  which  all  the  Amphibians  submit.  "  The 
division,  therefore,  of  reptiles,"  says  Professor  Rymer  Jones,  "into 
such  as  undergo  metamorphoses  and  such  as  do  not,  is  by  no  means 
philosophical  although  convenient  to  the  zoologist,  for  all  reptiles 
undergo  a  metamorphosis  although  not  to  the  same  extent.  In 
the  one  the  change  from  the  aquatic  to  the  air-breathing  animal  is 
never  fully  accomplished;  in  the  tailed  Amphibian  the  change 
is  accomplished  after  the  embryo  has  escaped  from  the  ovum." 

Salamanders  have  had  the  honour  of  appearing  prominently  in 
fabulous  narrative.  The  Greeks  believed  that  they  could  live  in 
fire,  and  this  error  obtained  credence  so  long,  that  even  now  it  has 
not  been  entirely  dissipated.  Many  people  are  simple  enough  to 
believe  from  the  Greek  tradition  that  these  innocent  animals  are 
incombustible.  The  love  of  the  marvellous,  fostered  and  excited 
by  ignorant  appeals  to  superstition,  has  gone  even  further  than 
this ;  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  most  violent  fire  becomes  extin- 
guished when  a  Salamander  is  thrown  into  it.  In  the  middle  ages 
this  notion  was  held  by  most  people,  and  it  would  have  been  dan- 
gerous to  gainsay  it.  Salamanders  were  necessary  animals  in  the 
conjurations  of  sorcerers  and  witches;  accordingly  painters  among 
their  symbolical  emblems  represented  Salamanders  as  capable  of 

*  In  Dr.  Giinther's  Catalogue  of  the  Batrachia  Salientia  (as  Dr.  Gray  terms  them) 
in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum,  published  in  1858,  and  which  includes  all  the 
ascertained  species  up  to  the  time  of  publication,  as  many  as  282  are  enumerated, 
which  are  arranged  under  twenty-five  groups  holding  the  rank  of  families. — ED. 


32 


BATBACHIANS. 


resisting  the  most  violent  action  of  live  coal.  It  was  found  neces- 
sary, however,  that  physicians  and  philosophers  should  take  the 
trouble  to  prove  by  experiment  the  absurdity  of  these  tales. 

The  skull  of  the  Land  or  Spotted  Salamander,  Salamandra 
maculosa,  is  well  described  by  Cuvier  as  being  nearly  cylindrical, 
wider  in  front  so  as  to  form  the  semi- circular  face,  and  also  behind 
for  the  crucial  branches,  containing  the  internal  ears.  The  cranium 
of  the  aquatic  Salamander  differs  from  the  terrestrial  in  having  the 
entire  head  more  oblong,  and  they  differ  also  among  themselves. 

In    the    Land    Salamander    the    body    is    black    and    warty 


Fig.  9. — Land  Salamander. 

with  large  irregular  yellow  spots  distributed  over  the  head, 
back,  sides,  feet,  and  tail.  They  affect  obscure  and  moist  places, 
and  only  issue  from  their  retreat  in  the  night  or  morning, 
walking  slowly,  and  dragging  themselves  with  '  difficulty  along 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  live  upon  flies,  beetles, 
snails,  and  earth  worms.  They  remain  in  the  water  to  deposit 
their  eggs ;  the  young  are  born  alive,  and  furnished  with  fully- 
developed  gills.  Moreover  Salamanders  are  gifted  with  a  power 
which  causes  them  to  be  much  dreaded  by  other  animals:  it 
has  the  power  of  discharging  an  acrid  and  milky  humour,  with  a 
very  strong  odour,  from  the  surface  of  its  body,  which  serves  as  a 
defence  against  many  animals  which  would  otherwise  attack  it. 
It  has  been  proved  by  experiment  that  this  liquid,  when  intro- 


NEWTS. 


33 


duced  into  the  circulatory  system  by  a  small  wound  is  a  very 
active  poison,  and  causes  certain  death  to  the  smaller  animals. 
This  species  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  but  not  in  the 
British  Islands. 

The  Black  Salamander,  Triton  alpestris,  has  no  spots  ;  it  is  found 
on  the  highest  European  mountains,  in  the  regions  of  snow,  and 
principally  on  the  highest  Alps. 

Newts,  or  Aquatic  Salamanders,  have  not  a  round  conical  tail 
like  the  terrestrial  species,  but  have  that  appendage  compressed  or 
flattened  laterally.  The  males  (during  the  breeding  season  only)  are 


Fig.  10.—  Newts,  or  Aquatic  Salamanders. 

recognised  chiefly  by  the  membranous  serrated  ridge  or  crest  which 
extends  along  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  from  the  head  to 
the  extremity  of  the  tail,  as  represented  in  Fig.  10.  Newts  are 
highly  aquatic ;  they  are  found  in  ditches,  marshes,  and  ponds, 
which  after  the  breeding  season  they  leave  for  moist  places  on 
land,  often  then  finding  their  way  into  drains  and  cellars.  They 
are  carnivorous,  feeding  upon  different  insects  and  on  the  spawn 
of  Frogs,  not  even  sparing  individuals  of  their  own  species.  The 
females  deposit  their  eggs  singly,  fixing  them  on  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  "  Some  Newts/'  says  Pro- 
fessor Owen,  "  deposit  their  eggs  upon  aquatic  plants,  such  as 
Polygonum  persicaria,  folding  the  leaf  by  means  of  the  hind  feet 

D 


34  BATRACHIANS. 

• 

in  such  a  way  that  its  under  surface  is  turned  inwards  and  the 
fold  made  to  stick  by  the  adhesive  coating  of  the  egg,  which 
she  inserts  in  the  fold."  The  young  are  hatched  fifteen  days 
after.  These  animals  give  utterance  to  a  very  peculiar  noise, 
and  when  touched  emit  an  odour  quite  characteristic. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  Newts  can  live  for  a  long  time,  not 
only  in  very  cold  water,  but  even  in  the  midst  of  ice,  being  some- 
times taken  in  blocks  of  ice  which  are  formed  in  the  ditches  and 
ponds  which  they  inhabit.  When  the  ice-flakes  melt  they  seem  to 
awaken  from  their  torpor,  and  betake  themselves  to  their  accus- 
tomed movements  with  their  recovered  liberty.  Lacepede  states 
that  he  found  Aquatic  Salamanders  even  during  summer  in  pieces 
of  ice  obtained  from  the  ice- dealers,  where  they  had  remained 
without  movement  or  nourishment  from  the  time  when  the  ice 
had  been  gathered  from  the  marshes. 

Newts  present  another  remarkable  feature  in  the  facility  with 
which  they  repair  any  mutilations  they  may  have  undergone.  Not 
only  do  their  tails  grow  again  when  broken  off,  but  even  their  feet 
are  reproduced  in  the  same  manner,  and  the  process  may  be  many 
times  repeated. 

The  Crested  Newt,  Triton  cristatus,  is  frequently  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris ;  the  skin  of  its  back  is  rough  and  warty, 
of  a  brownish  colour,  with  large  black  spots  and  white  projecting 
points ;  the  belly  has  black  spots  upon  an  orange  ground. 

The  Dutch  traveller,  Sieboldt,  has  introduced  a  species  of 
Aquatic  Salamander,  which  inhabits  the  mountain  lakes  and 
marshes  of  Japan.  This  species  is  remarkable  for  its  gigantic 
growth.  Instead  of  being  the  size  of  a  finger,  as  is  the  case  with 
those  indigenous  to  Europe,  this  Batrachian  is  four  feet  and  a  half 
in  length,  and  weighs  fifty  pounds. 

•Magnificent  specimens  of  this  gigantic  Salamander,  the  Sie- 
boldtia  maxima,  may  be  seen  by  the  visitors  to  the  London 
Zoological  Gardens.  The  largest  of  them  measured  and  weighed 
as  above  (March  3rd,  1869).  An  analogous  large  fossil  species 
was  described  as  the  Homo  diluvii  testis  ! 

The  transformation  of  the  tailed  Batrachians,  from  the  tadpole 
condition  to  the  air-breathing  and  four-footed  state,  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  exhibitions  of  Nature,  and  one  which  everyone 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  NEWTS.    .  35 

may  verify  for  himself.  "We  cannot  in  our  brief  description  have 
a  more  trustworthy  guide  than  Professor  Rymer  Jones,  who 
selects  the  Water  Newt,  Triton  cristatus,  as  an  example : — 

" Immediately  before  leaving  the  egg," he  says,  "this  tadpole 
presents  both  the  outward  form  and  internal  structure  of  a  fish. 
The  flattened  and  vertical  tail,  fringed  with  a  broad  dorsal  and 
oval  fin  ;  the  shape  of  the  body  and  gills,  appended  to  the  side  of 
the  neck,  are  all  apparent ;  so  that  wrere  the  creature  to  preserve 
this  form  throughout  its  life  the  naturalist  would  scarcely  hesitate 
in  classing  it  with  fishes,  properly  so  called. 

"When  first  hatched  it  presents  the  same  fish-like  body,  and  rows 
itself  through  the  water  by  the  lateral  movement  of  the  caudal  fin. 
The  only  appearance  of  legs  as  yet  visible  consists  in  two  minute 
tubercles,  which  seem  to  be  sprouting  out  from  the  skin  imme- 
diately behind  the  branchial  tufts,  and  which  are,  in  fact,  the  first 
buddings  of  anterior  extremities.  Nevertheless,  to  compensate  to 
a  certain  extent  for  the  total  want  of  prehensile  limbs,  which 
afterwards  become  developed,  two  supernumerary  organs  are  pro- 
visionally furnished  in  the  shape  of  two  minute  claspers  on  each 
side  of  the  mouth  ;  by  means  of  these  the  little  creature  holds  on  to 
the  leaves  which  are  under  water. 

"  Twelve  days  after  issuing  from  the  egg,  the  two  fore-legs,  which 
at  first  resembled  two  little  nipples,  have  become  much  elongated, 
and  are  divided  at  their  extremity  into  two  or  three  rudiments  of 
fingers.  The  eyes,  which  were  before  scarcely  visible,  being  covered 
by  a  membrane,  distinctly  appear.  The  branchiae,  at  first  simple, 
are  divided  into  fringes,  wherein  red  blood  now  circulates ;  the 
mouth  has  grown  very  large,  and  the  whole  body  is  so  transparent 
as  to  reveal  the  position  of  the  viscera  within.  Its  activity  is 
likewise  much  increased  ;  it  swims  with  rapidity,  and  darts  upon 
minute  aquatic  insects,  which  it  seizes  and  devours. 

"  About  the  twenty- second  day  the  tadpole  for  the  first  time 
begins  to  emit  air  from  the  mouth,  showing  that  the  lungs  have 
begun  to  be  developed.  The  branchiae  are  still  large.  The 
fingers  upon  the  fore-legs  are  completely  formed.  The  hind- 
legs  begin  to  sprout  beneath  the  skin,  and  the  creature  presents,  in 
a  transitory  condition,  the  same  external  form  as  that  which  the 
Siren  lacertina  permanently  exhibits. 


36  0  BATBACHIANS. 

"By  the  thirty- sixth  day  the  young  Salamander  has  arrived  at  the 
development  of  the  Proteus  anguinus ;  its  hind-legs  are  nearly 
completed  ;  its  lungs  have  become  half  as  long  as  the  trunk  of  the 
body,  and  its  branchiae  more  complicated  in  structure. 

"  At  about  the  forty-second  day  the  tadpole  begins  to  assume  the 
form  of  an  adult  Newt.  The  body  becomes  shorter,  the  fringes 
of  the  branchise  are  rapidly  obliterated,  so  that  in  five  days  they 
are  reduced  to  simple  prominences  covered  by  the  skin  of  the  head  ; 
and  the  gills  opening  at  the  sides  of  the  neck,  which  allowed  the 
water  to  escape  from  the  mouth  as  in  fishes,  and  were,  like  them, 
covered  with  an  operculum  formed  by  a  fold  of  the  integument, 
are  gradually  closed ;  the  membranous  fin  of  the'  tail  contracts, 
the  skin  becomes  thicker  and  more  deeply  coloured,  and  the 
creature  ultimately  assumes  the  form  and  habits  of  the  perfect 
Newt,  no  longer  possessing  branchise,  but  breathing  air,  and  in 
every  particular  the  Heptile." 

But  however  curious  the  phenomena  attending  the  development 
of  the  tadpoles  of  the  Amphibian  Reptiles  may  be  to  the  observer 
who  merely  watches  the  changes  perceptible  from  day  to  day  in  their 
external  form,  they  acquire  tenfold  interest  to  the  physiologist 
who  traces  the  progressive  evolution  of  their  internal  viscera ; 
more  especially  when  he  finds  that  in  these  creatures  he  has  an 
opportunity  afforded  him  of  contemplating,  displayed  before  his 
eyes,  as  it  were,  upon  an  enlarged  scale,  those  phases  of  develop- 
ment through  which  the  embryo  of  every  air-breathing  vertebrate 
animal  must  pass  while  concealed  within  the  egg,  or  yet  unborn.* 

*  In  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  (1850)  these  Amphibians  are  styled  Batra- 
chia Gradientia,  and  are  distributed  under  three  families,  comprising  fifty-two  recog- 
nised species.  The  class  Amphibia  is  divided  by  Dr.  Gray  into  five  orders — viz. 
Batrachia,  Pseudosauria,  Pseudophidia,  Pseudichthyes,  and  Meantia.  Of  these  the  first, 
or  the  Batrachia,  are  divided  into  the  sub-orders  Salientia  and  Gradientia,  the  latter 
consisting  of  three  families,  Salamandridce,  Molgidce,  and  PletUodontidce.  The  second 
order,  Pseudosauria,  comprises  the  families  Protonopsidce  (which  contains  the  Sieboldtia 
maxima)  and  Amphiumidce.  The  third  order,  Pseudophidia,  consists  of  only  one 
family,  CcEciliidce.  The  fourth  order,  Pseudichthyes,  also  contains  one  family  only, 
the  Lepidosirenida.  The  fifth  order,  Meantia,  comprises  the  two  families  Proteida 
and  Sirenida.  Twenty-four  ascertained  species  are  distributed  amongst  the  last 
four  of  these  orders ;  but  the  limits  of  this  work  do  not  permit  of  a  more  detailed 
notice  of  these  various  groups  of  Batrachia  Gradientia.  More  recently,  Dr.  Giinther, 
in  his  work  on  the  reptiles  of  the  Indian  region,  has  pointed  out  certain  structural 
characters  connected  with  the  generative  system  which  show  that  the  Pseudophidia 


BATKACHIANS.  37 

do  not  properly  belong  to  the  Batrachia ;  nor  is  their  place  in  the  system  as  yet 
quite  satisfactorily  determined.  They  seem  rather  to  be  a  very  humble  form  of 
reptile ;  while  the  Pscudichthyes  should  rather  be  subordinated  to  the  class  Pisces : 
though,  as  we  have  seen,  there  are  naturalists  who  would  refer  all  of  the  Batrachia 
to  the  fish  class,  certain  forms  amongst  them  rising  to  a  parallelism  of  development 
with  Reptilia,  but  still  not  constituting  true  reptiles.  The  mode  of  reproduction 
especially  is  in  favour  of  this  view.  Both  Pseudophidia,  and  Pseudichthyes  are  inter- 
tropical  or  subtropical  animals,  whereas  the  rest  of  the  Batrachia  Gradientia  belong 
almost  exclusively  to  the  northern  temperate  zone ;  any  exceptional  case  occurring 
probably  in  very  elevated  regions.  Of  sixty-six  ascertained  species,  forty-nine  are 
American,  and  there  are  five  from  Japan,  inclusive  of  the  Sieboldtia  maxima.  But 
more  species  have  been  discovered  since  the  catalogue  cited  has  been  drawn  up,  and 
of  course  there  must  be  many  yet  to  be  discovered.  Five  species  are  referred  to  the 
Pseudophidia^  and  three  only  to  the  Pseudichthyes. — ED. 


CHAPTER  IL 
OPHIDIAN  REPTILES,  OR  TRUE  SNAKES. 

REPTILES  are,  as  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  chapter,  Yerte- 
brated  Animals,  breathing  by  lungs,  having  red  and  cold  blood ; 
that  is  to  say,  not  producing  sufficient  heat  to  render  their  tem- 
perature superior  to  that  of  the  atmosphere.  Destitute  of  hairs, 
of  feathers,  of  mammary  glands,  and  having  bodies  covered  with 
scales. 

Snakes,  properly  so  called,  have  the  tympanic  bone,  or  pedicle 
of  the  lower  jaw,  movable,  and  nearly  always  suspended  to  another 
bone,  analogous  to  the  mastoid  bone,  which  is  attached  to  the  cra- 
nium by  muscles  and  ligaments,  a  conformation  which  gives  to  these 
animals  the  vast  power  of  distension  they  possess.  Their  trachea 
is  long,  their  hearts  placed  far  back,  and  the  greater  number  have 
one  very  long  lung  and  vestiges  of  a  second.  They  are  divided 
into  non-venemous  and  venemous  ;  and  the  latter  are  sub-divided 
into  venemous  with  maxillary  teeth,  and  venemous  with  isolated 
fangs. 

The  Snakes  prey  almost  exclusively  on  animals  of  their  own 
killing ;  the  more  typical  species  attacking  such  as  are  frequently 
larger  than  themselves :  and  the  maxillary  apparatus  is,  as  we 
have  seen,  modified  so  as  to  permit  of  the  requisite  distension. 
According  to  Professor  Owen's  clear  and  intelligible  descrip- 
tion, the  two  superior  maxillary  bones  have  their  anterior 
extremities  joined  by  an  elastic  and  yielding  fibrous  tissue 
with  the  small  and  single  intermaxillary  bone  ;  the  lower  maxil- 
lary rarni  are  similarly  connected.  The  opposite  extremity  of 
each  ramus  is  articulated  to  a  long  and  movable  vertical  pedicle 
formed  by  the  tympanic  bone,  which  is  itself  attached  to  the 


OPHIDIANS.  30 

extremity  of  a  horizontal  pedicle  formed  by  the  mastoid  bone, 
so  connected  as  to"  allow  of  a  certain  yielding  movement  upon 
the  cranium.  The  other  bones  have  similar  loose  movable  articu- 
lations, which  concur  in  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  large  bodies 
with  which  the  teeth  have  grappled. 

The  class  of  Reptiles  is  divided  into  three  orders : — the  OPHI- 
DIANS, comprehending  the  Snakes ;  the  SAURIANS,  the  Lizards 
and  Crocodiles ;  and  the  CHELONIANS,  the  Turtles  and  Tortoises. 


OPHIDIANS. 

In  Ophidians,  commonly   known   under  the  name  of  Snakes, 
the  body  is  long,  round,  and  straight.      They  have  neither  feet, 
fins,  nor  other  locomotive  extremities.    Their  mouths  are  furnished 
with  pointed  hooked  teeth.     In  the  Boas  and  Pythons  the  teeth 
are  slender,  curved,  bending  backwards  and  inwards  above  their 
base  of  attachment.     In  others  each  maxillary  bone  has  a  row  of 
larger  ones,  which  gradually  decrease  in  size  as  they  are  placed 
further  back.     These  teeth  are  not  contiguous,  being  separated  by 
considerable  intervals.     The  smaller  non-venemous  Serpents,  such 
as  the  Colubridtf,  have  two  rows  of  teeth  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
Each  maxillary   and   mandibular   bone  includes  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  teeth.      In  the  Rattlesnakes  and  some  other  typical 
genera  of  poisonous  Snakes,  the  short  maxillary  bone  only  sup- 
ports  a   single    perforated   fang.       Their   lower  jaw   is   highly 
distensible  ;  the  opening  being  longer  than  the  skull.     They  have 
no  neck ;  their  eyelids   are  immovable  ;  their   skin  is  coriaceous, 
highly  extensible,  and  scaly  or  granulous,  covered  with  a  thin 
caducous   epidermis,  which  detaches  itself  in   one   entire   piece, 
and  is  reproduced  several  times  in  one  year.     Their  movements 
are  supple  and  varied.     In  consequence  of  the  sinuosity  of  their 
bodies, — for,  though  scale- clad,  Snakes  are  without  apparent  means 
of  progression, — they  make  their  way  with  the  utmost  facility,  by 
walking,  leaping,  climbing,  or  swimming. 

According  to  the  genus  chiefly,  the  very  numerous  species 
inhabit  either  arid  or  moist  places,  the  ground,  or  bushes  and 
trees.  Some  pass  much  of  their  time  in  the  water,  and  one 
family  (that  of  the  HydTOphiddfy  is  exclusively  aquatic — even 


40  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

pelagic  in  the  instance  of  one  very  widely  diffused  species,  the 
Pelamis  bicolor.  In  the  Arboreal  Snakes  the  tail  is  very  long, 
and  highly  prehensile  ;  in  others,  as  the  Yipers,  it  is  short  and 
without  any  prehensility.  In  the  Sea  Snakes  (Hydrophidce),  it 
is  laterally  much  compressed.  Like  other  true  reptiles,  Snakes 
abound  more  especially  in  warm  climates,  and  there  are  many  kinds 
of  them  in  Australia  ;  but  the  order  has  not  a  single  representative 
in  JNew  Zealand. 

Most  of  the  Snakes  feed  on  living  animals,  only  a  few  on  birds' 
eggs.  Several  kinds  of  them  prey  habitually  on  other  Snakes,  as 
the  genera  Hamadryas,  Bungarus,  and  Elaps,  even  Psammophis 
occasionally ;  and  there  are  rare  instances  of  non-venemous 
Snakes  preying  upon  poisonous  ones.  The  venemous  kinds  first 
kill  their  victim  by  poisoning  it ;  various  others  by  smothering 
it  between  the  coils  of  their  body.  As  they  do  not  possess  organs 
for  tearing  the  prey  to  pieces,  nor  a  dentition  fit  for  mastication, 
the  prey  is  swallowed  entire  ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  great 
width  of  the  mouth,  and  of  the  extraordinary  extensibility  of  the 
skin  of  the  gullet,  they  are  able  to  swallow  animals  of  which 
the  girth  much  exceeds  their  own.  The  Sea  Snakes  prey  mostly 
upon  fishes,  and  the  ordinary  Water  Snakes  (Homolopsidce,  &c.)  on 
frogs  and  other  Batrachians.  Certain  swallowers  of  birds'  eggs 
have  peculiar  spinous  processes  proceeding  from  the  vertebrae  of 
the  neck,  the  object  of  which  is  to  fracture  the  shell  of  an  egg 
during  the  process  of  deglutition. 

Most  of  the  Ophidian  Reptiles  are  oviparous,  but  many  are 
ovo-viviparous.  The  Pythons  alone  (so  far  as  ascertained)  perform 
a  sort  of  incubation,  which  has  been  repeatedly  observed  of  captive 
specimens  of  these  huge  Serpents. 

Many  Snakes  are  remarkable  for  their  great  beauty  of  colouring, 
or  of  the  pattern  of  their  markings  ;  but  on  account  of  the 
poisonous  property  of  so  many  of  them,  the  whole  order  is 
popularly  regarded  with  horror  and  apprehension,  and  the  most 
foolish  tales  are  current  respecting  various  species  of  them.  Thus 
many  people  suppose  that  there  are  Snakes  which  rob  cows  of 
their  milk ;  and  the  skeleton  of  a  child  being  found  in  the  same 
hollow  with  a  number  of  harmless  Snakes  (the  North  American 
Coryphodon  constrictor],  it  was  concluded,  as  a  matter  of  course, 


ERRONEOUS  NOTIONS  CONCERNING  SNAKES.  41 

that  the  Serpents  must  have  both  killed  the  child  and  Gripped  off 
its  flesh,  which  latter  is  what  no  Snake  could  possibly  do.  People 
are  prone  to  exaggerate,  and  commonly  evince  a  fondness  for  the 
marvellous,  which  induce  those  of  hot  countries  more  especially, 
where  the  species  of  Ophidians  are  numerous,  to  declare  every 
Snake  met  with  as  usually  the  most  venomous  one  in  their  country  ; 
and  thus  travellers  often  come  away  with  exceedingly  erroneous 
impressions  on  the  subject.  The  Indian  region  surpasses  every 
other  part  of  the  globe  in  the  number  and  variety  of  its  Ophidians, 
and  almost  every  investigation  of  a  limited  but  previously  unex- 
plored district,  is  tolerably  sure  to  add  largely  to  our  previous  know- 
ledge of  them.  What,  however,  the  late  Sir  J.  Emerson  Tennent 
asserts  of  those  inhabiting  Ceylon,  is  equally  applicable  to  other 
parts  of  the  Indian  region.  "  During  my  residence  in  Ceylon," 
he  remarks,  "  I  never  heard  of  the  death  of  an  European  which 
was  caused  by  the  bite  of  a  Snake  ;  and  in  the  returns  of  coroners' 
inquests  made  officially  to  my  department,  such  accidents  to  the 
natives  appear  chiefly  to  have  happened  at  night,  when  the  reptiles, 
having  been  surprised  or  trodden  on,  inflicted  the  wound  in  self- 
defence.  For  these  reasons  the  Cingalese,  when  obliged  to  leave 
their  houses  in  the  dark,  carry  a  stick  with  a  loose  ring,  the  noise 
of  which,  as  they  strike  it  on  the  ground,  is  sufficient  to  warn  the 
Snakes  to  leave  their  path." 

In  some  parts  of  the  vast  Indian  region  the  natives  regard  the 
innocuous  Chameleon  as  venemous  ;  in  other  parts  various  Geckos, 
or  other  Lizards.  In  Bengal  there  is  a  current  notion  regarding 
a  terrifically  poisonous  Lizard,  which  is  termed  the  Bis-cobra,  but 
which  has  no  existence  except  in  the  imagination  of  the  natives — 
who  bring  the  young  of  the  Monitors  and  occasionally  other  well- 
known  Lizards  as  exemplifying  the  object  of  their  dread.  Again, 
the  little  harmless  Burrowing  Snakes  (Typhlops),  which,  superfi- 
cially, have  much  the  appearance  of  earth-worms,  are  there  popularly 
regarded  as  highly  poisonous,  though  not  only  are  they  harmless, 
but  physically  incapable  of  wounding  the  human  skin.  Strangers 
who  are  little  versed  in  zoology  are  commonly  led  astray  by  such 
errors  on  the  part  of  natives  of  those  countries,  and,  unfortunately, 
there  is  a  number  of  stock  vernacular  names  which  are  applied  to 
very  different  species  in  different  localities.  Thus  Europeans 


42  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

in  India  are  familiar  with  the  appellation  "  Carpet  Snake,"  as 
denoting  a  very  deadly  reptile,  but  nobody  can  there  point  out 
what  the  Carpet  Snake  really  is  ;  and  the  one  most  generally 
supposed  to  bear  that  name  is  a  small  innocuous  Snake  (Lycodon 
aulicus),  which  is  common  about  human  dwellings.  In  the 
Australian  colony  of  Victoria,  however,  the  appellation  Carpet 
Snake  is  bestowed  upon  a  terribly  venemous  species  (Hoplo- 
cephalus  curtus) ;  while  in  the  neighbouring  colony  of  New 
South  Wales,  a  harmless  and  even  useful  creature  (Morelia 
spilotes)  is  habitually  known  as  the  Carpet  Snake. 

With  regard  to  the  poison  of  Yenemous  Snakes,  attention  has 
lately  been  directed  to  the  virtue  of  ammonia  or  volatile  alkali. 
This  should  be  administered  internally,  mixed  with  alcoholic 
spirit  and  water,  in  repeated  doses  ;  and  it  should  also  be  injected 
into  a  vein — about  one  drachm  of  the  liquor  ammonia  of  the  shops 
being  mixed  with  two  or  three  times  that  quantity  of  water.  The 
patient  should  be  kept  moving  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  effects 
of  a  galvanic  battery  should  also  be  tried  in  cases  where  animation 
is  nearly  or  quite  suspended.  By  these  means  it  is  asserted  that 
quite  recently,  in  Australia,  some  very  remarkable  cures  have 
been  effected. 

The  Ophidia  have  many  enemies,  as  the  well-known  Mungoose 
among  mammalia,  also  Swine,  and  various  ruminating  quadrupeds, 
as  Deer  and  Goats.  In  the  bird  class,  the  famous  Serpent- eater, 
or  Secretary-bird  of  South  Africa,  is  one  of  their  chief  destroyers  ; 
and  there  are  various  other  Snake-devouring  birds  of  prey,  besides 
the  great  African  Ground  Hornbill,— even  the  Peafowl  and  sundry 
Storks  and  other  waders.  Comparatively  large  birds  of  the  King- 
fisher family  prey  chiefly  upon  Snakes  and  Lizards  in  Australia ; 
and  of  reptiles,  besides  those  Snakes  which  prey  upon  other 
Snakes,  the  Monitor  Lizards  frequently  seize  and  devour  them. 

The  series  of  Ophidians  is  arranged  by  our  most  eminent  herpe- 
tologist,  Dr.  A.  Giinther,  into  five  subordinate  groups,  which  he 
characterises  as  follows  : — 

I.  Burrowing  Snakes,  living  under  ground,  only  occasionally 
appearing  above  the  surface.  They  are  distinguished  by  a  rigid 
cylindrical  body,  short  tail,  narrow  mouth,  small  head  not 
distinct  from  the  neck,  little  teeth  in  small  number,  and  by  the 


SNAKES.  43 

absence  or  feeble  development  of  the  ventral  shields.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  small  invertebrate  animals.  Not  any  of  them  are 
venemous. 

II.  Ground  Snakes,  or  species  which  live  above  ground,  and 
only  occasionally  climb  bushes  or  enter  the  water ;  their  body  is 
more  or  less  cylindrical,  very  flexible  in  every  part,  and  of  mode- 
rate proportions.     Their  ventral    shields  are  broad.     They  feed 
chiefly   on   terrestrial    vertebrate   animals.     By  far   the    greater 
number  of  Snakes  belong  to  this  category,  and  it  is  represented 
by  many  variations  in  all  of  the  three  sub- orders  to  be  noticed 
presently. 

III.  Tree  Snakes,  or  species  passing  the  greater  part  of  their 
life  on  bushes  and  trees,   which  they  traverse  with  the  utmost 
facility.     They  are  distinguished  either  by  an  exceedingly  slender 
body,  with  broad,  sometimes  carinated,  ventral  shields,  or  by  a 
prehensile  tail.     Many  of  the  species  are  characterised  by  their 
vivid  coloration,  of  which  green   forms  the  principal  part.     We 
shall  see,  in  the  sequel,  that  the  first  and  third  sub-orders  offer 
numerous  instances  of  Tree  Snakes  ;  the  Tree  Snakes  of  the  second 
sub-order  being  confined  to  Tropical  Africa.    They  feed  on  animals 
which  have  a  mode  of  life  similar  to  their  own  ;  only  a  few  species 
on  eggs. 

IV.  Fresh-nater  Snakes,  distinguished  by  the  position  of  the 
nostrils,  which  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  snout,  and  by  a  taper- 
ing tail.     They  inhabit  fresh- waters,  and  are,  therefore,  excellent 
swimmers  and  divers  ;  only  a  few  species  (which  also  in  external 
characters  approach  the  following  group,  that  of  the  true  Sea 
Snakes)  venture  out  to  sea.    They  feed  on  fishes,  frogs,  crustaceans, 
and  other  water  animals,  and  are  viviparous.     Not  any  of  them 
are  venemous. 

Y.  Sea  Snakes,  distinguished  by  a  strongly  compressed  tail, 
and  by  the  position  of  the  nostrils,  which  are  placed  as  in  the  last 
group.  They  live  in  the  sea,  only  occasionally  approaching  the 
land,  feed  on  marine  fishes,  are  viviparous  and  venemous.  One 
genus  only  (Platurus)  has  the  ventral  shields  so  much  developed 
as  to  be  able  to  move  on  land.  No  Oceanic  Serpent  is  known  of 
gigantic  dimensions,  such  as  is  currently  alleged  to  have  been 
seen  by  unscientific  observers. 


44  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

"  Although  these  five  groups/'  remarks  Dr.  Giinther,  "  are  not 
separated  from  each  other  by  defined  lines  of  demarcation,  and 
frequently  pass  into  one  another  by  intermediate  forms,  yet  a 
family  and  genus  which  should  be  composed  of  species  of  several 
of  these  groups  would  be  a  very  unnatural  assemblage  of  hetero- 
geneous forms." 

It  is  also  remarked  by  the  same  naturalist  that  there  is  no  sharp 
boundary  line  between  the  order  of  Snakes  and  that  of  Lizards. 
There  are  various  limbless  Saurians  of  Ophidian  appearance,  but 
the  systematic  position  of  which  is  decided  by  the  structure 
of  their  jaws.  The  Common  Orvet,  or  Slow -worm,  is  a  familiar 
instance.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  Ophidians  remind  us,  by 
several  characters,  of  the  Saurian  type, — as  the  Snakes  constituting 
the  families  Typhlopida,  Tortricidce,  Xenopeltida,  and  Uropeltida, 
which  are  distinguished  by  polished,  closely  adherent,  rounded, 
sub-equal  scales,  much  resembling  the  smooth  scales  of  various 
Scincoid  Lizards ;  most  of  them  have  a  very  narrow  mouth,  un- 
like the  enormous  gape  of  the  typical  Serpents,  and  some  are 
without  that  longitudinal  fold  in  the  median  line  of  the  chin 
which  is  so  characteristic  of  most  Ophidians ;  moreover,  most 
of  them  have  rudiments  of  the  bones  of  a  pelvic  arch.  "  The 
reason,"  alleges  Dr.  Giinther,  "  why  we  adopt  the  view  of  those 
systematists  who  refer  such  reptiles  to  the  Ophidians,  instead  of 
associating  them  with  the  limbless  Scincoid  Lizards,  is  the  loose 
connection  of  the  jaw-bones,  a  character  which  must  be  con- 
sidered as  peculiar  to  the  Ophidians,  and  which  is  only  somewhat 
less  developed  in  the  families  mentioned  than  in  the  typical  forms. 
The  two  halves  of  the  lower  jaw  in  Ophidians,  namely,  are  not 
united  by  a  bony  symphysis,  but  by  an  elastic  ligament.  The 
peculiar  mobility  of  the  jaw  bones  enables  the  Snakes  to  extend 
the  gape  in  an  extraordinary  degree,  and  to  work  their  prey  down 
through  the  collapsed  pharynx." 

The  same  naturalist  classifies  the  Ophidia  into  three  sub- orders, 
in  which  the  venemous  Snakes  are  separated  from  the  others ;  but 
to  some  herpetologists  this  arrangement  must  appear  rather  forced, 
as  his  Venemous  Colubrine  Snakes  have  certainly  a  much  nearer  re- 
semblance in  other  respects  to  the  Colubrida  than  they  have  to  the 
Viperine  Snakes.  For  the  most  part,  these  reptiles  are  provided 


VENEMOUS  SNAKES.  45 

with  numerous   teeth,  which  are  lengthened,  conical,   thin  and 
pointed  like  a  needle,  and  more  or  less  bent  backwards. 

In  Dr.  Giinther's  first  sub-order,  that  of  Non-venemous  Snakes, 
the  teeth  are  either  entirely  smooth,  or  only  the  last  of  the 
maxillary  series  is  provided  with  a  faint  longitudinal  groove, 
which  is  not  intended  to  convey  a  virus  into  the  wound,  the 
groove  appearing  rather  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  tooth. 
Many  of  them  have  long  teeth  in  front  of  the  jaws  or  of  the  palate, 
but  these  are  never  grooved  or  perforated,  and  only  serve  to  afford 
a  firmer  hold  on  the  living  and  struggling  prey. 

''  The  structure  of  the  venom-tooth  is  not  the  same  in  all 
poisonous  Snakes  :  in  some  it  is  fixed  to  the  maxillary  bone,  which 
is  as  long  or  nearly  as  long  as  in  the  non-venemous  Snakes,  and  gene- 
rally bears  one  or  more  ordinary  teeth  on  its  hinder  portion.  The 
venom-tooth  is  fixed  more  or  less  erect,  not  very  long,  and  its 
channel  is  generally  visible  as  an  external  groove.  The  poisonous 
Snakes  with  such  a  dentition  have  externally  a  more  or  less 
striking  resemblance  to  the  non-venemous  Serpents,  and  on  this 
account  they  are  designated  as  Venemous  Colubrine  Snakes,  form- 
ing our  second  sub-order"  Two  very  distinct  families  are  here 
brought  together — viz.  the  Elapidce  (which  comprises  the  Cobras1 
and  many  others),  and  the  Hydrophida  (or  Sea  Snakes). 

"  In  the  other  venemous  Snakes,  composing  the  third  sub-order, 
the  maxillary  bone  is  extremely  short,  and  does  not  bear  any 
teeth  except  an  exceedingly  long  fang,  with  a  perfectly  closed 
externally  invisible  channel  in  its  interior.  Although  this  tooth 
also  is  fixed  to  the  bone,  the  bone  itself  is  very  mobile,  so  that  the 
tooth,  which  is  laid  backwards  when  'at  rest,  can  be  erected  the 
moment  the  animal  prepares  to  strike.  This  tooth  or  fang,  like 
all  the  other  teeth,  is  not  only  occasionally  lost,  but  appears  to  be 
shed  at  regular  intervals.  From  two  to  four  other  venom-fangs 
in  different  stages  of  development,  destined  to  replace  the  one  in 
action,  exist  between  the  folds  of  the  gum,  and  are  not  anchylosed 
to  the  bone."  The  more  characteristic  venemous  Snakes  apper- 
tain to  this  sub-order — viz.  the  two  families  Crotalidce  (compre- 
hending the  Rattlesnakes,  the  Fer-de-lance,  &c.)  and  Viperida 
(comprising  the  Yipers,  Puff-adders,  &c.). 

Let  it  be  particularly  borne  in  mind  that  the  supposed  distin- 


46  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

guishing  characters  of  all  poisonous  Snakes,  as  assigned  by  sundry 
mischievously  ignorant  writers,  are  those  of  the  third  of  the  fore- 
going sub- orders  almost  exclusively.  Even  the  broad,  flat,  and 
lanceolate  form  of  head  is  exemplified  in  certain  Tree  Snakes  of 
the  non-venemous  genus  Dipsas,  and  not  in  the  Cobras  and  others 
that  are  quite  as  deadly — e.g.  Hoplocephalus,  Bungarus,  Naja, 
Elaps,  and  others  constituting  the  Colubriform  family  Elapidce. 

FIRST  SUB-ORDER. 

OpMdii  Coluber  if ormes  (Giinther),  Innocuous  Snakes. 

These  are  distributed  by  Dr.  Giinther  under  numerous  families, 
of  which  we  can  only  notice  the  more  prominent,  and  some  of  the 
more  conspicuous  species,  in  a  popular  exposition. 

The  Typhlopidte,  or  Blind  Snakes,  comprise  forms  which  are 
the  most  remote  from  the  true  Ophidian  type.  They  live  under 
ground,  their  rigid  body  and  short  curved  tail  being  adapted  for 
burrowing.  After  showers  of  rain  they  occasionally  appear  above 
ground,  and  then  they  are  tolerably  agile  in  their  serpentine 
movements.  The  eye,  which  is  scarcely  visible  in  many  species; 
can  give  to  them  only  a  general  perception  of  light.  They  feed 
on  worms  and  small  insects,  the  tongue  being  forked,  and,  as  in 
other  Snakes,  frequently  exserted.  They  are  oviparous.  The 
smallest  species  of  Snakes  belong  to  this  family,  some  of  them 
being  only  half  the  size  of  a  common  earth-worm,  to  which  they 
bear  a  superficial  resemblance.  Such,  indeed,  are  the  small 
vermiform  Snakes  already  referred  to,  as  being  foolishly  con- 
sidered venemous  by  most  natives  of  India.  Species  of  this 
family  inhabit  almost  every  country  within  and  near  the  tropics. 

The  Tortricidce  are  akin  to  the  Typhlopida,  and  have  rudiments 
of  hind  limbs  hidden  in  a  small  groove  on  each  side  of  the  vent, 
also  a  longitudinal  fold  at  the  chin.  The  "  Coral  Snake "  of 
Demarara  (Tortrix  scytale)  appertains  to  this  family;  and  the 
genus  Cylindrophis,  different  species  of  which  inhabit  the  great 
Asiatic  archipelago,  with  the  island  of  Ceylon, 

The  family  Xenopeltidtf  consists  of  a  single  species  only,  so  far 
as  hitherto  known,  the  Xenopeltis  unicolor,  which  is  common  in 
the  Indo-Chinese  and  Malayan  countries.  It  grows  to  three  or 
four  feet  in  length,  and  when  alive  is  uniformly  steel-blue, 


FIRST  SUB-OEDEE.  47 

most  beautifully  iridescent,  beneath  white ;  but  the  blue  fades  to 
brown  after  long  immersion  in  spirits.  Young  examples  have  a 
white  collar.  Mr.  W.  'Theobald  remarks  of  it  that  "  this  Snake 
is  common  in  Lower  Pegu  and  the  Tenasserim  provinces,  and  is 
very  malignly  beautiful,  though  of  repulsive  physiognomy.  The 
skin  is  loose  and  thick,  and  its  habits  are  nocturnal.  The  following 
illustrates  its  ferocious  nature  : — I  once  remarked  a  Colubrine 
Snake  (Ptyas  mucosa),  some  five  feet  in  length,  in  the  hedge  of  the 
Circuit-house  of  Bassein.  On  running  downstairs,  the  Snake  had 
vanished,  but  on  searching  for  it  I  saw  its  tail  sticking  out  of  a 
hole  beneath  a  wooden  plant-case.  Do  what  I  might  I  could  not 
drag  it  out,  as  it  seemed  held  fast  within.  I  therefore,  with  some 
trouble,  overturned  the  plant- case,  and  then  saw  that  the  unlucky 
Colubrine  Snake  was  firmly  pinned  by  a  large  Xenopeltis,  into 
whose  hole  it  had  unwittingly  entered.  The  Xenopeltis  seemed 
about  four  feet  in  length  ;  but,  on  perceiving  itself  uncovered, 
released  its  hold  of  the  Ptyas  and  made  its  escape."  The  Xenopeltis 
'preys  chiefly  on  small  mammalia,  which  it  hunts  for  in  their  subter- 
ranean holes ;  and  in  some  respects  it  approximates  the  Pythonidce. 

The  Uropelticlce,  or  Shield-tails,  constitute  a  very  curious  family 
of  Burrowing  Snakes,  which  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  the 
Typhlopidce,  but  have  a  very  peculiar,  short,  strong,  posteriorly 
shielded  tail,  adapted  for  working  their  way  below  the  surface. 
The  species  are  mostly  small,  and  hitherto  they  have  been  found 
chiefly  in  Ceylon,  but  a  few  also  in  the  peninsula  of  India.  They 
are  by  no  means  scarce,  but  escape  observation  from  their  peculiar 
mode  of  life.  Dr.  Kelaart  remarks  that  "  they  are  timid  creatures, 
seldom  making  their  appearance  above  ground  ;  living  chiefly  in 
anthills  or  dunghills,  sometimes  also  several  feet  deep  in  rich 
loamy  soil.  They  feed  on  ants,  small  earth-worms,  and  the  larvae 
of  insects,  and  at  least  one  species  has  been  ascertained  to  be  vivi- 
parous. Five  genera  and  eighteen  species  of  them  are  recognised. 

The  Calamaridce  form  an  extensive  family  of  diminutive  slender 
Snakes,  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length,  many  species  of  which 
inhabit  both  the  Old  World  and  the  New,  though  the  same  kinds 
are  not  found  both  East  and  West.  They  keep  to  the  ground, 
beneath  stones,  fallen  trees,  &c.  ;  and  their  food  appears  to 
consist  chiefly  of  insects.  They  are  gentle,  and  never  attempt 


48  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

to  bite,  and  themselves  very  commonly  become  the  prey  of  the 
smaller  Elapidae,  certain  of  which  indeed  bear  considerable 
resemblance  in  appearance  to  the  Calamaridce,  but  are  readily 
distinguished  by  possessing  the  poison-fangs. 

The  Oligodontida  are  another  extensive  family  of  small  ground 
Snakes,  which  are  peculiar  to  South-eastern  Asia  and  its  great 
archipelago.  They  conduct  to  the  terrene  genera  of  the  great 
family  Colubridce, 

The  Colubrid(E  are  divided  by  Dr.  Giinther  into  ground  Colu- 
brines  (Coronellina),  true  Oolubrines  (Colubrince),  bush  Colu- 
brines  (Dryadince),  and  fresh-water  Colubrines  (Natricince) ;  and 
he  remarks  that  "  they  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  temperate 
and  tropical  regions,  but  are  only  scantily  represented  in  Australia 
and  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  The  species  are  so  numerous 
and  show  such  a  gradual  passage  between  extreme  forms,  that, 
although  genera  can  be  easily  characterized,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  distinguish  wider  groups  by  definite  characters." 
Among  them  the  Coronellince  approximate  the  immediately  pre- 
ceding families,  and,  like  them,  live  on  the  ground,  and  are 
not  generally  of  brilliant  colouring,  though  a  few  species  which 
frequent  grassy  plains  are  of  a  bright  green  colour.  The  Colu- 
brince  "  form,  as  it  were,"  writes  Dr.  Giinther,  "  the  nucleus  of 
the  whole  sub- order  of  innocuous  Snakes  :  they  are  typical  forms, 
not  characterized  by  the  excessive  development  of  some  particular 
organ,  but  by  the  fairness  of  the  proportions  of  all  parts.  Yet 
some  of  them  have  a  more  slender  body  than  others  which  always 
live  on  the  ground  ;  they  are  land  Snakes,  but  swim  well  when 
driven  into  the  water,  or  climb  when  in  search  of  food.  They 
are  of  moderate  or  rather  large  size."  In  the  Dryadince  the  form 
is  elongate  and  somewhat  compressed,  indicating  their  climbing 
propensities  ;  they  have  the  body  not  so  excessively  slender  as  in 
the  true  Tree  Snakes,  to  which  they  lead  off.  They  are  much 
more  numerous  in  the  New  World  than  in  the  Old,  and  their 
ground-colour  is  very  commonly  green.  The  Natricince  are  gene- 
rally not  very  elongate  or  compressed,  and  most  of  them  have  keeled 
scales.  They  freely  enter  the  water  in  pursuit  of  their  food, 
which  consists  chiefly  of  frogs  and  fishes.  All  the  Snakes  of  the 
preceding  three  sub- families  overpower  their  prey  by  throwing 


COLUBEID^.  49 

some  coils  of  the  body  round  or  over  it,  and  commence  to  swallow  it 
only  after  it  has  been  smothered,  or  at  least  exhausted  ;  but  the 
Natricince  swallow  their  prey  immediately  after  they  have  seized  it. 

Of  the  sub-family  Coronellince,  one  species  of  the  typical  genus 
Coronella  is  widely  diffused  over  Europe,  and  has  only  of  late 
years  been  recognised  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  British  Islands, 
the  Coronella  austriaca.  Another,  C.  girondica,  occurs  in  Italy. 
Others  are  found  in  Africa,  America,  and  Australia.  The 
C.  austriaca  has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  the  common  Adder, 
for  which  it  is  often  mistaken  ;  but  it  is  non-venemous,  though 
rather  a  fierce  reptile,  which  bites  and  holds  on  ;  and  as  it  occurs 
in  Malta  (where  no  venemous  species  is  known  to  exist),  it  is 
doubtless  the  supposed  Viper  which  seized  upon  the  apostle 
Paul.  Several  other  genera  are  recognised. 

Of  the  Colubrince,  Rhinechis  scalaris,  Coluber  cescidapii,  C.  qua- 
drilineatus,  Elaphis  quater-radiatus,  and  three  species  of  Zamenis 
inhabit  Europe  :  there  are  five  of  Coluber  in  North  America,  and 
the  well-known  "  Black  Snake  "  of  the  Anglo-Americans  is  the 
Corypkodon  constrictor.  Other  species  of  Coryphodon  or  Ptyas 
inhabit  South-eastern  Asia,  as  the  different  "  Eat  Snakes "  of 
Anglo-Indians,  of  which  Ptyas  mucosus  is  particularly  common  in 
India,  where  it  is  encouraged  by  reasonable  people  as  a  destroyer 
of  the  far  more  troublesome  Brown  Rat  (Mus  decumanus). 

The  Dryadintie  are  chiefly  American,  and  do  not  call  for  par- 
ticular further  remark ;  but  the  Natritince  are  very  numerous,  and 
there  are  three  species  in  Europe  of  its  most  prominent  genus, 
Tropidonotus — viz.  T.  natrix,  T.  hydrus,  and  T.  viperinus.  Dr. 
Gvinther  gives  as  many  as  twenty-one  species  of  this  genus  as  in- 
habitants of  the  Indian  region  alone,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  that  number  is  far  from  being  complete.  Others  inhabit  North 
America  and  North-western  Australia,  and  some  generic  groups 
have  been  detached  that  are  not  very  conspicuously  separable.] 

The  Ringed  Snake,  Tropidonotus  natrix,  is  often  found  in  fine 
seasons  near  human  habitations.  It  deposits  its  eggs,  which  are 
fifteen  to  twenty  in  number,  commonly  in  dunghills,  in  one  agglu- 
tinated mass.  Exposed  to  the  air,  these  eggs  soon  shrivel  and  dry, 
and  the  embryos  within  them  perish.  The  Ringed  Snakes  are  also 
found  near  rivers  and  meadows,  by  the  side  of  water- courses,  into 

£ 


50 


OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 


which  they  love  to  plunge ;  hence  they  are  sometimes  called  Water 
Serpents,  Swimming  Serpents,  Hedge  Eels,  and  other  provincial 
synonyms.  They  sometimes  attain  to  as  much  as  and  more  than  a 
yard  in  length.  The  summit  of  their  head  is  covered  with  nine 
large  scales,  disposed  in  four  rings.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is 
of  a  more  or  less  darkish  grey  colour,  marked  on  each  side  with 
irregular  black  spots.  Between  the  two  rows  of  spots  are  two 
other  longitudinal  rows,  which  extend  from  the  head  to  the  tail. 
The  belly  varies  from  black  to  a  bluish  white.  Upon  the  neck 
are  two  whitish  or  pale  yellowish  spots,  which  form  a  kind  of  half 
collar  or  ring,  from  which  its  name  is  derived ;  these  two  spots 


Tig.  11.— Kinged  Snake  (Tropidonotus  natrix). 

become  much  more  apparent  from  being  contrasted  with  two 
other  very  dark  triangular  spots  placed  near  them.  They  prey 
upon  lizards,  frogs,  and  mice,  and  they  even  surprise  young 
birds,  and  devour  the  eggs  in  their  nests,  for  they  climb  trees  with 
facility.  Towards  the  end  of  the  autumn  they  seek  the  warmest 
places,  approaching  near  to  houses ;  or  they  retire  into  subter- 
ranean holes,  often  at  the  bottom  of  some  hedge,  which  is 
almost  always  in  an  elevated  place,  secure  from  inundations. 
The  Ringed  Snake  is  found  in  nearly  all  European  countries, 
and  can  be  handled  without  danger.  Lacepede  gives  some 
interesting  details,  showing  the  gentleness  of  its  habits.  They 


THE  EINGED  SNAKE.  51 

are  easily  tamed,  and  can  be  kept  in  bouses,  where  they  soon 
accustom  themselves  to  those  who  have  the  care  of  them. 
At  a  sign  from  their  keeper,  they  will  twist  themselves  round 
his  fingers,  arms,  and  neck,  insinuate  their  heads  between  his 
lips  to  drink  his  saliva,  and  to  hide  and  warm  themselves  they 
creep  under  his  clothes.  In  their  wild  state,  the  adult  Ringed 
Snake  lives  in  the  fields ;  and,  when  full-grown,  shows  great 
irritation  when  attacked.  When  exasperated,  they  move  their 
tongues,  erect  themselves  with  great  vivacity,  and  even  bite  the 
hand  which  tries  to  seize  them ;  but  their  bite  is  quite  harmless. 

[This  Hinged  Snake  is  the  Natrix  torquatus  of  Ray,  well  known 
to  naturalists.  The  female  is  larger  than  the  male.  Its  food  con- 
sists a  good  deal  of  frogs,  which  are  generally  caught  by  the  leg, 
and  swallowed  alive,  in  spite  of  resistance  and  very  distressing  cries. 

When  the  skin  has  just  been  cast,  the  Ringed  Snake  presents 
beautiful  markings,  especially  when,  seen  swimming  across  some 
clear  running  stream,  its  head  and  neck  raised  above  the  limpid 
water,  and  the  sun  shining  on  its  bright  enamelled  skin.  It  has 
been  supposed,  not  unnaturally,  that  the  Snake  casts  its  skin  at 
fixed  intervals  ;  this,  Mr.  Bell  considers  to  be  a  mistake.  He  has 
always  found  that  it  depended  on  the  temperature  of  the  atmo- 
sphere and  on  their  state  of  health  and  feeding.  "  I  have  known 
the  skin  thrown  off/'  he  adds,  "  four  or  five  times  during  the  year. 
It  is  always  thrown  off  by  reversing  it,  so  that  the  transparent 
covering  of  the  eyes  and  that  of  the  scales  are  always  found  in  the 
exuviae.  Previous  to  this  curious  phenomenon,  the  whole  cuticle 
becomes  somewhat  opaque,  the  eyes  dim,  and  the  animal  is  evi- 
dently blind.  It  also  becomes  more  or  less  inactive,  until  at  length, 
when  the  skin  is  ready  for  removal  and  the  new  skin  perfectly 
hard  underneath,  the  animal  bursts  it  at  the  neck,  and  creeping 
through  some  dense  herbage  or  low  brushwood,  leaves  it  detached, 
and  comes  forth  in  brighter  and  clearer  colours  than  before." 

The  Ringed  Snake  begins  to  hybernate,  in  some  warm  hedge 
or  under  the  root  of  some  tree,  or  other  sheltered  situation,  about 
the  end  of  autumn  ;  and  there  they  coil  themselves  up,  sometimes  in 
numbers,  till  the  spring  again  calls  them  forth.  Many  instances 
are  told  of  this  Snake  being  tamed.  Mr.  Bell  had  one  which  knew 
him  from  all  other  persons ;  it  would  come  to  him  when  let  out  of 

E2 


52  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

its  box,  and  crawl  under  the  sleeve  of  his  coat,  and  every  morning 
come  to  him  for  its  draught  of  milk.] 

The  Green  and  Yellow  Snake  is  also  about  a  yard  in  length,  and 
is  common  in  the  south  and  west  of  France ;  they  have  been 
taken  in  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau.  The  beautiful  colours  in 
which  they  are  clothed  causes  them  to  be  easily  distinguished 
from  the  Yiper.  The  eyes  are  edged  with  golden- coloured  scales  ; 
the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  of  a  very  dark  greenish  colour, 
upon  which  is  extended  a  large  number  of  radiating  lines,  com- 
posed of  small  yellowish  spots  of  different  shapes,  some  long, 
others  lozenge  shape,  giving  it  a  chequered  appearance.  These 


Fig.  12.— Tropidonotus  viperinus. 

chequers  extend  from  the  head  to  the  tail.  The  belly  is  yel- 
lowish ;  the  large  plates  which  cover  it  have  a  black  spot  at  each 
end,  and  are  bordered  with  a  very  thin  black  line.  This  inoffen- 
sive reptile  is  extremely  timid,  and  generally  hides  itself  from 
observation,  taking  to  flight  at  the  least  alarm.  They  are  said 
to  be  easily  tamed. 

The  Yiperine  Snake  (Fig.  12)  has  the  body  of  a  greyish  or 
dirty  yellow  colour,  having  on  the 'middle  of  the  back  a  series  of 
blackish  spots  so  close  to  each  other  as  to  give  the  idea  of  one 
small  continuous  wavy  line  from  head  to  tail.  The  sides  are 
covered  with  isolated  spots,  forming  lozenge-like  figures,  the 
centres  of  which  are  of  a  greenish  tint.  This  is  the  smallest  of  all 


DESEKT  SNAKES.  53 

the  European  Colubridce,  and,  like  the  others,  it  is  found  in 
most  parts  of  Europe. 

[The  Psammophidce,  or  Desert  Snakes,  are  akin  both  to  the 
ColubridfB  and  to  the  Tree  Snakes  of  the  next  family ;  but  the 
latter,  remarks  Dr.  Giinther,  may  always  be  distinguished  either 
by  their  green  coloration,  by  the  horizontal  pupil  to  the  eye,  or 
the  absence  of  a  long,  anterior,  maxillary  tooth.  In  the  Psammo- 
phidce  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  round  or  vertical.  Most  of  the 
species  of  this  family  belong  to  the  fauna  of  tropical  Africa,  which 
also  produces  a  slender  form  (in  Psammophis  elegans).  The  other 
species  are  of  a  stouter  habit,  frequenting  plains,  or  at  all  events 
living  on  the  ground.  Of  the  Indian  Psammophis  condanarus, 
Dr.  Jerdon  procured  one  which  had  killed  and  was  swallowing  a 
small  Yiper  (Echis  carinata),  this  being  one  of  the  few  instances 
in  which  a  non-venemous  Snake  has  been  known  to  overpower  a 
poisonous  one.  We  have  heard  the  same  of  a  small  Boa-like 
Serpent  ( Chilabothrus  ?)  in  the  West  Indies,  which  is  said  to 
prey  upon  the  formidable  Crotalidce.  The  P sammodynastes 
pulverulentus  has  a  wide  geographical  range  over  South-eastern 
Asia  and  its  islands.  Although  innocuous,  it  has  the  aspect  of  a 
venemous  species. 

In  a  kindred  African  family,  the  Rachiodontidas,  the  species  of 
Dasypeltis  have  the  maxillary  teeth  minute  and  few  in  number 
(four  to  seven) ;  but  they  have  also  some  remarkable  gular  teeth, 
which  are  formed  by  the  elongated  inferior  spinous  processes  of 
the  hinder  cervical  vertebrae.  The  object  of  the  latter  is  to  crush 
the  shells  of  birds'  eggs,  upon  which  the  Snakes  in  question 
habitually  feed. 

Of  the  more  characteristic  Tree  Snakes,  the  Dendrophidae  have 
the  body  and  tail  much  compressed,  or  very  slender  and  elongated  ; 
the  head  generally  lengthened,  narrow,  flat,  and  distinct  from  the 
slender  neck ;  the  snout  rather  long,  obtuse  or  rounded  in  front ; 
cleft  of  the  mouth  wide ;  and  the  eye  of  moderate  size,  or  large, 
with  round  pupil.  These  are  Diurnal  Snakes,  which  live  entirely 
upon  trees,  where  they  prey  chiefly  on  arboreal  lizards  and  frogs. 
Species  of  them  inhabit  all  tropical  countries.  They  are  mostly 
of  great  beauty,  and  the  Indian  Chrysopelea  ornata  is  excessively 
so,  being  variegated  with  yellow  and  crimson  upon  a  black  ground  ; 


54  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

but  the  crimson  soon  fading  when  a  specimen  is  immersed  in 
spirit.  Others  are  very  variable  in  their  colouring,  as  the  African 
Bucephalus  capensis  and  the  Indian  Dendrophis  picta. 

The  next  family  of  Dryiophidce,  or  the  Whip  Snakes,  have  a  still 
more  slender  and  elongated  body,  which  has  been  aptly  compared 
to  the  thong  of  a  whip.  The  head  is  very  narrow  and  long,  with 
ta-pering  snout,  ending  in  a  protruded  rostral  shield,  which  is  some- 
times modified  into  a  flexible  appendage  ;  eyes  of  moderate  size, 
and  all  the  Asiatic  species  h&ve  the  pupil  of  the  eye  horizontally 
linear,  and  a  long  fang-like  tooth  in  the  middle  of  the  maxil- 
lary. The  whole  of  this  group  are  provided  with  a  posterior  grooved 
tooth.  They  are  chiefly  nocturnal,  and  their  movements  are  won- 
derfully rapid  and  graceful  among  the  branches  of  trees.  They 
are  numerous  almost  everywhere  in  tropical  countries.  In  general 
the  various  Whip  Snakes  are  of  a  bright  leaf-green  colour,  with 
two  white  stripes  on  the  belly,  so  that  they  are  difficult  to  discern 
.among  the  foliage.  In  the  genus  Lang  aha,  which  is  peculiar  to 
Madagascar,  the  muzzle  is  elongated  into  a  fleshy  appendage, 
which  is  covered  with  small  scales,  constituting  about  one-third 
of  the  total  length  of  the  head.  This  appendage  is  dentated  in 
one  species  (L.  crista-galli),  and  not  so  in  another  (L.  nasuta).  In 
the  Indian  genus  Passerita  the  snout  is  long  and  pointed,  termi- 
nating in  a  flexible  appendage.  The  name  of  Whip  Snake  is 
applied  by  Anglo-Indians  to  all  of  the  species  of  Dendrophidce  and 
of  Dryiophidcz,  and  the  erroneous  notion  prevails  that  they  are 
highly  venemous,  and  that  they  spurt  venom  into  people's  eyes. 
The  same  .is  believed  in  South  Africa  of  the  Bucephalus  capensis. 
Even  ;<Grordon  Gumming  asserts  that  one  night  a  Snake  which  his 
servant  had  tried  to  kill  with  his  loading-rod  flew  up  at  his  eye, 
and  "  spat  poison  into  it.  Immediately/7  he  adds,  "  I  washed  it 
well  at  the  fountain.  I  endured  great  pain  all  night,  but  next 
day -my  eye  was  all  right."* 

*  "A  Hunter's  Life  in  South  Africa,"  vol."  ii.  p.  133.  Vide  also  Chapman's 
"Travels  in  the  Interior  of  South  Africa,"  vol.  ii.  p.  34.  We  have  personally 
captured  or  assisted  in  capturing  various  species  of  both  families  in  India,  and  it  is 
no  easy  .matter  to  do  so  sometimes,  from  the  rapidity  of  their  movements  among  the 
branches  of  trees  and  hushes ;  hut  most  assuredly  we  never  saw  one  of  these  most 
beautiful  reptiles  attempt  to  dart  or  to  spurt  at  anybody,  and  as  they  have  no 
poison  fangs  the  latter  must  needs  be  an  error. — ED. 


TEEE  SNAKES.  55 

Of  a  beautiful  green  species  (Philodryas  viridissimus),  apper- 
taining to  the  family  of  Dendrophidce,  in  Brazil,  Dr.  Wurcherer 
writes: — "I  am  always  delighted  when  I  find  that  another  Tree 
Snake  has  settled  in  my  garden.  You  look  for  a  bird's  nest,  the 
young  ones  have  gone,  but  you  find  their  bed  occupied  by  one  of 
these  beautiful  creatures,  which  will  coil  up  its  body,  of  two  feet 
in  length,  within  a  space  not  larger  than  the  hollow  of  your  hand. 
They  appear  to  be  always  watchful ;  for  at  the  instant  you  dis- 
cover one,  the  quick  playing  of  the  long,  black,  forked  tongue 
will  shew  you  that*you  too  are  observed.  On  perceiving 
the  slightest  sign  of  your  intention  to  disturb  it,  the  Snake  will 
dart  upwards  through  the  branches  and  over  the  leaves,  which 
scarcely  appear  to  bend  beneath  the  weight.  A  moment  more, 
and  you  have  lost  sight  of  it."  Some  of  the  true  Whip  Snakes 
attain  to  six  or  seven  feet  in  length,  or  even  more ;  and  with 
reference  to  the  vague  application  of  vernacular  names  (vide 
p.  42),  it  may  here  be  remarked  that  the  "Little  Whip  Snake" 
of  the  Australian  colony  of  Victoria  denotes  a  poisonous  Snake 
of  a  very  different  family  (the  Hoplocephalusjlagellum). 

The  Dipsadida  are  a  numerous  family  of  tropical  Tree  Snakes, 
which  also  have  a  much  compressed  body,  but  short  and  tri- 
angular-shaped head,  which  is  broad  behind ;  the  eye  large, 
having  generally  a  vertical  pupil.  Some  of  them  attain  to  six  or 
seven  feet  in  length,  and  all  live  on  warm-blooded  animals.  It 
is  remarkable  that  certain  of  the  species  prey  on  birds  solely, 
whilst  others  attack  only  mammalia.  Their  coloration  varies  a 
good  deal,  and  species  of  them  inhabit  most  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries. 

The  Lycodontidce  are  an  extensive  family  of  small  Ground 
Snakes,  inhabiting  Africa  and  tropical  Asia,  which  have  the  body 
generally  of  moderate  length,  or  rather  slender,  and  the  head  also 
of  moderate  length  and  width,  with  generally  a  depressed,  flat, 
and  somewhat  elongated  muzzle ;  maxillary  with  a  fang-like 
tooth  in  front,  but  without  a  posterior  grooved  tooth.  The  African 
species  feed  on  Mice  and  other  small  nocturnal  mammalia ;  while 
the  Indian  species  (which  have  a  vertical  pupil)  prey  chiefly,  if 
not  wholly,  on  the  smaller  Scincoid  Lizards,  which  they  would 
appear  to  follow  into  the  place  of  their  retreat.  Lycodon  aulicus 


56  OPHIDIAN  REPTILES. 

is  one  of  the  commonest  Snakes  of  the  Indian  region,  and  is  quite 
harmless,  though  often  ignorantly  supposed  to  be  dangerously 
poisonous. 

The  Amblyc&phalida>  or  Blunt-heads,  comprise  a  few  species  of 
moderate  or  small  size,  akin  to  the  Dipsadidce,  but  the  narrow 
mouth  of  which  necessitates  their  feeding  on  insects,  and  they 
live  on  trees  and  bushes,  or  under  the  roofs  of  huts.  Of  the 
Indo-Chinese  and  Malayan  Amblycephalus  boa,  Dr.  Giinther 
remarks  that  "  the  head  of  this  most  singular  Snake  resembles 
much  that  of  a  mastiff,  the  lips  being  arched  and  tumid.  It 
climbs  with  great  facility,  frequenting  the  roofs  of  the  natives'  huts 
in  pursuit  of  its  insect  food.  It  attains  to  a  length  of  three  feet, 
the  tail  being  a  third."  Of  a  second  genus,  P areas,  three  species 
inhabit  the  same  region. 

The  Pythonidce,  or  Pythons,  and  Boas,  are  celebrated  for  the 
enormous  magnitude  to  which  some  of  the  species  attain.  These 
are  emphatically  the  great  constrictor  Serpents,  to  all  of  which  the 
name  of  Boa-constrictor  is  popularly  applied,  although  this 
appellation  refers  properly  to  one  only  of  them  which  is  peculiar 
to  South  America.  Various  genera  of  them  inhabit  Africa, 
South-eastern  Asia  and  its  islands,  Australia,  and  South  America, 
with  the  West  Indies.] 

The  Pythons  are  large  Serpents  of  Asia  and  Africa.  They  live 
in  marshy  places,  and  near  the  margins  of  rivers.  They  are  non- 
venemous,  but  possessed  of  immense  muscular  power,  which 
enables  some  of  the  species  to  kill,  by  constriction,  animals  of  much 
larger  circumference  than  themselves. 

Aristotle  tells  us  of  immense  Lybian  Serpents,  so  large  that  they 
pursued  and  upset  some  of  the  triremes  of  voyagers  visiting  that 
coast.  Virgil's  Laocoon,  so  vividly  represented  in  the  well-known 
marble  group,  owes  its  origin,  no  doubt,  to  the  descriptions  current 
of  constricting  Serpents.  Quoting  Livy,  Valerius  Maximus  relates 
the  alarm  into  which  the  Eoman  army,  under  Eegulus,  was 
thrown  by  an  enormous  Serpent,  having  its  lair  on  the  banks  of 
the  Bagradus,  near  Utica.  This  Serpent  Pliny  speaks  of  as  being 
a  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long.  But,  without  multiplying 
instances  to  which  time  has  lent  its  fabulous  aid,  and  coming  to 
more  modern  times,  Bontius  speaks  of  Serpents  in  the  Asiatic 


PYTHON.  57 

islands  as  being  so  various  that  he  despairs  of  even  enume- 
rating them  all.  "The  great  ones,"  he  says,  "  sometimes  exceed 
thirty-six  feet,  and  have  such  capacity  of  throat  and  stomach, 
that  they  swallow  entire  Boars."  Adding  that  he  knew  persons 
who  had  partaken  of  a  Hog  cut  out  of  the  stomach  of  a  Serpent  of 
this  kind.  "They  are  not  poisonous,"  he  adds,  "but  they  strangle 
by  powerfully  applying  their  folds  round  the  body  of  their  prey." 
Mr.  M'Leod,  in  his  interesting  voyage  of  the  Alceste,  states  that 
during  a  captivity  of  some  months  at  Whidah,  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  he  had  opportunities  of  observing  Serpents  double  this 
length,  one  of  which  engaged  a  negro  servant  of  the  governor 
of  Fort  William  in  its  coil,  and  very  nearly  succeeded  in  crushing 
him  to  death.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  length  is  here  much 
exaggerated.  About  thirty  feet  is  the  utmost  length  attained  by 
the  most  gigantic  Serpents  of  which  we  possess  accurate  know- 
ledge. 

The  body  of  the  PYTHON  is  large  and  round.  They  live  on 
trees  in  warm  damp  places,  on  the  banks  of  streams  or  water- 
courses, and  attack  the  animals  which  come  there  to  slake  their 
thirst.  Hanging  by  the  tail  to  the  trunk  of  a  tree  they  remain 
immovable  in  their  ambush  until  their  opportunity  comes,  when 
they  dart  upon  their  prey,  fold  their  bodies  round  it  with  amazing 
rapidity,  and  crush  it  in  their  monstrous  folds.  Animals  as  large 
as  Gazelles,  and  even  larger,  thus  become  their  victims.  Their 
jaws  are  extremely  distensible,  as  we  have  seen  ;  for,  having  neither 
breast-bone  nor  false  sides,  they  can  easily  increase  the  diameter 
of  the  opening,  so  as  to  swallow  the  most  voluminous  prey. 

The  Ophidians  (as  we  have  seen)  surpass  all  other  Reptiles  in 
the  number  of  their  vertebra),  with  incomplete  haemal  arches ; 
these  constitute  the  skeleton  of  the  long,  slender,  limbless  trunk. 
All  these  vertebrae  coalesce  with  one  another,  and  are  articulated 
together  by  ball-and-socket  joints.  Besides  this  articulation  to 
the  centrum,  the  vertebrae  of  Ophidians  articulate  with  each  other 
by  means  of  joints  which  interlock  by  parts  reciprocally  receiving 
and  entering  one  another,  like  the  tenon-and-inortise  joint  in 
carpentry.  "The  vertebral  ribs  have  an  oblong  articular  surface, 
concave  above  and  almost  flat  below,  in  the  Python.  They  have 
a  large  medullary  cavity,  with  dense  but  thin  walls,  with  a  fine 


58  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

cancellated  structure  at  their  articular  ends.  Their  lower  end 
supports  a  short  cartilaginous  membrane,  closing  the  haemal 
arch,  which  is  attached  to  the  broad  and  stiff  abdominal  scute. 
These  scutes,  alternately  raised  and  depressed  by  muscles  attached 
to  the  ribs  and  integuments,  aid  in  the  gliding  movement  of 
serpents." 

The  peculiar  motion  of  Snakes  was  first  noted  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  and  commented  on  by  Sir  Everard  Home.  Sir  Joseph 
was  observing  a  Coluber  of  unusual  size,  and  thought  he  saw  its 
ribs  come  forward  in  succession,  like  the  feet  of  a  caterpillar.  To 
test  this,  he  placed  his  hand  under  the  animal,  the  ends  of  the  ribs 
were  distinctly  felt  pressing  upon  the  surface  in  regular  succession, 
leaving  no  doubt  that  the  ribs  formed  so  many  pairs  of  levers,  by 
means  of  which  it  moves  its  body  from  place  to  place. 

The  muscles  which  bring  forward  these  ribs,  according  to  Sir 
Everard,  consists  of  five  sets.  One  from  the  transverse  process  of 
each  vertebra  and  the  rib  immediately  behind  it,  which  rib  is 
attached  to  the  next  vertebra.  The  next  set  goes  from  the 
rib  near  the  spine,  and  passes  over  two  ribs,  sending  a  slip  to 
each,  and  is  inserted  into  a  third,  a  slip  connecting  it  with  the 
next  muscle  in  succession.  Under  this  is  a  third  set,  issuing 
from  the  posterior  side  of  each  rib,  passing  over  two  ribs,  and  send- 
ing a  lateral  slip  to  the  next  muscle,  and  is  also  inserted  in  the 
third  rib  behind.  And  so  on  throughout  the  h' ve  sets  of  muscles. 

On  the  inside  of  the  chest  there  is  a  strong  set  of  muscles 
attached  to  the  anterior  surface  of  each  vertebra,  and  passing 
obliquely  forward  over  four  ribs  is  inserted  into  the  fifth  one  only 
in  the  centre.  From  this  part  of  each  rib  a  strong  flat  muscle  comes 
forward  on  each  side,  before  the  viscera,  forming  the  abdominal 
muscles  and  uniting  in  a  middle  tendon,  so  that  the  lower  half  of 
each  rib  which  is  beyond  the  origin  of  this  muscle,  and  which  is 
only  laterally  connected  to  it  by  a  loose  cellular  membrane, 
is  external  to  the  belly  of  the  animal,  and  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  progressive  motion,  while  that  half  of  each  rib  which 
is  next  the  spine,  as  far  as  the  lungs  extend,  is  employed  in 
respiration. 

These  observations  of  Sir  Everard  Home  apply  to  all  Snakes ; 
but  the  muscles  were  compared  with  a  skeleton  of  the  Boa- 


59 

constrictor  in  the  Hunterian  Museum,  which  is  thirteen  feet  nine 
inches  in  length.  The  habit  of  attaching  themselves  to  trees, 
and  holding  on  by  the  tail,  their  heads  and  bodies  floating 
listlessly  on  some  sedgy  river,  is  explained  by  the  structure  of  the 
tail.  Dr.  Meyer  has  minutely  described  the  manner  in  which  they 
hook  themselves  on  to  a  tree,  which  gives  them  the  power  of  a 
double  fulcrum.  The  apparatus  which  gives  this  power  is  a  spur 
or  nail  on  each  side  of  the  vent  in  the  Pythonida,  in  which  the 
anatomist  discovered  the  elements  of  an  unguinal  phalanx  articu- 
lated with  another  bone  much  stronger,  which  is  concealed  under 
the  skin. 

Following  the  arrangement  of  the  Pythowdce,  adopted  by  Dr.  J. 
E.  Gray  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  British  Museum,  we  find : — 

I.  Morelia,   having   a  strong   prehensile   tail,    distinct   head, 
truncate  muzzle,  crown  of  the  head  with  small  shield-like  plates. 
Of  this   genus    there   are  two    species.       The   Diamond   Snake 
(M.  spilotes),  a  native  of  Australia,  and  .of  .a  bluish-black  colour; 
and  the  Carpet  Snake  (M.  variegccta),  from  Port  Essington  and 
Swan   River.      It   is   whitish,  with   irregular   black-edged  olive 
spots,  and  an  olive  head,  with  two  or  three  .white  spots  in  the 
centre  of  the  crown, 

II.  Python,  having  the  crown  shielded  to  behind  the  eyes. 

Of  this  genus  there  are  two  species,  which  have  sometimes 
been  referred  to  the  Boas.  The  Pythons  bear  the  same  general 
appearance.  Upon  their  bodies  is  traced  a  sort  of  blackish- 
brown  chain,  presenting  nearly  quadrangular  links  upon  a  clear 
yellowish  ground,  extending  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the 
extremity  of  the  tail.  The  suscephalous  region  is  partly  covered 
by  a  large  brownish-black  spot.  Upon  each  side  of  the  head  is  a 
black  band,  which  frequently  extends  from  the  nostril,  passing  by 
the  eye,  as  far  as,  and  up  to,  the  commissures  or  corners  of  the  lips. 

P.  reticulatus,  the  Ular  Sawad  of  the  Malay  countries,  found 
also  in  Burmah  and  Siam,  has  the  four  front  upper  labial  plates 
pitted ;  the  frontal  plate  simple ;  the  head  has  a  narrow,  longi- 
tudinal, brown  stripe.  This  is  one  of  the  most  handsomely  marked 
species  of  the  whole  family,  its  body  being  covered  with  a  gay 
lacing  of  black  and  golden  yellow.  It  is  said  to  attain  the  great 
length  of  thirty  feet,  and  is  stout  in  proportion.  In  its  native  wilds 


60 


OPHIDIAN  KEPTILES. 


Fig.  13.-Natal  Eock  Snake  (Hortulia  natalensi*). 


the  powers  of  this  gigantic 
reptile  are  said  to  be  enor- 
mous, being  able  to  subdue  a 
full-grown  Buffalo  ;  and  even 
a  Man  has  been  said  to  fall  a 
prey  to  its  fury.  A  Malay 
prao  had  anchored  for  the  night 
under  an  island  of  the  Celebes. 
One  of  the  crew  had  gone 
ashore  in  search  of  the  favourite 
betel  nut,  and  is  supposed  on 
his  return  to  the  beach  to  have 
fallen  asleep.  In  the  dead  of 
the  night  his  comrades  were 
roused  by  his  screams  ;  they 
pulled  ashore  with  all  expe- 
dition, but  came  too  late;  the 
cries  had  ceased,  and  the 
wretched  man  had  breathed  his 
last  in  the  folds  of  one  of 
these  enormous  Serpents.  They 
killed  the  creature,  cut  off  the 
head,  and  carried  it,  together 
with  the  lifeless  body  of  their 
comrade,  to  the  vessel.  The 
right  wrist  of  the  corpse  bore 
the  mark  of  the  Serpent's  teeth, 
and  the  disfigured  body  showed 
that  the  man  had  been  crushed 
by  the  constrictive  folds  of  the 
reptile  round  the  head,  breast, 
and  thighs.  The  Ular  Sawad 
arranges  its  eggs  by  placing 
them  in  a  group,  which  is 
covered  by  the  body.  This 
statement,  first  made  by  Mr. 
Bennett,  has  been  confirmed 

b         the      observations      of     M. 


EOCK  SNAKE.  61 

Lamare  Picquot,  and  by  observations  on  other  species  of  Python 
in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  Paris,  and  in  the  London  Zoological 
Gardens. 

The  Hock  Snake  of  India  and  Ceylon  (P.  mohtrus)  is  another 
species  to  which  the  name  of  Boa-constrictor  has  been  given. 
It  has  the  two  pairs  of  front  upper,  and  three  hind  lower  labial 
shields  pitted,  and  the  frontal  plates  double.  Of  this  gigantic 
Serpent  several  specimens  are  generally  to  be  seen  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens. 

III.  Hortulia,  having  the  upper  and  lower  labial  shields  deeply 
pitted;  muzzle  and  forehead  with  symmetrical  shield;  nostrils 
lateral.  They  are  natives  of  Africa,  and  three  species  are  known, 
namely,  the  Natal  Rock  Snake,  having  the  lower  labial  shields 
deeply  pitted,  the  muzzle  and  forehead  with  symmetrical  shields, 
the  nostrils  lateral ;  the  Guinea  Rock  or  Fetish  Snake  (H.  Seba), 
closely  resembling  the  last  in  many  structural  points  ;  and  the 
Royal  Rock  Snake  (H.  regid),  having  the  four  pairs  of  the  upper 
front  labials  pitted,  the  upper  ocular  plate  single,  the  lower  labial 
shields  four  in  number  and  broad. 

The  Royal  Rock  Snake  inhabits  Western  Africa.  It  is  black 
in  colour,  marked  on  the  middle  of  the  back  with  a  series  of 
oblong  white  spots,  the  sides  being  marked  by  another  series 
of  large  white  spots,  with  one  or  two  black  spots  in  the  upper 
part ;  the  head  black,  with  a  streak  over  the  nostrils  and  the  top 
of  the  eyes,  another  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  eye,  the  lips  and 
chin  beneath  are  white. 

The  Natal  Rock  Snake  (H.  natalensis,  Fig.  13)  is  described  by 
Sir  Andrew  Smith  as  being  gigantic  in  size,  he  having  seen  a  skin 
measuring  twenty-five  feet,  although  part  of  the  tail  was  absent. 
"  It  feeds/7  he  says,  "on  small  quadrupeds;  and  for  some  days  after 
swallowing  one  it  remains  in  a  torpid  state,  when  it  may  be  easily 
destroyed."  Of  this  opportunity,  however,  the  South  Africans 
never  avail  themselves  ;  they  have  a  horror  of  the  reptile,  but 
believe  that  it  has  an  influence  over  their  destinies,  and  affirm 
that  no  one  has  ever  been  known  to  kill  one  and  prosper. 

The  Guinea  Rock  or  Fetish  Snake  (//.  Sela,  Fig.  14)  is 
typical  of  the  genus,  and  has  also  been  referred  to  the  Boa- 
constrictor,  and  closely  resembles  the  Natal  Rock  Snake.  It  is 


62 


OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 


a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Africa.     A  living  specimen  at  the 
Zoological  Gardens  is  estimated  to  weigh  a  hundredweight. 

Of  the  genera  Liasis  and  Nardoa  there  are  five  species,  very 
imperfectly  known. 


Fig.  14.— Guinea  Rock  Snake  (H.  Sebce). 


IV.  Epicrates,  an  American  and  West  Indian  species,  having 
the  crown  scaly ;  the  forehead  with  symmetrical  shields. 

The  Aboma  (E.  cenchria)  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  group, 
sometimes  attaining  dimensions  quite  gigantic.  It  is  yellowish 
in  colour,  with  a  row  of  large  brown  rings  running  the  whole 


ABOMA. 


63 


length  of  the  back,  and  variable  spots  on  the  sides  ;  these  are 
generally  dark,  with  a  whitish  semi-lunar  mark.  This  formidable 
Reptile  has  all  the  habits  of  its  congeners ;  it  is  found  in  the 
marshy  swamps  of 
tropical  America, 
and  near  the  rivers, 
where  it  lies  in  wait 
for  its  prey. 

The  Boas,  pro- 
perly so  called, 
have  the  scales 
smooth  ;  labial 
shields  smooth,  not 
pitted ;  the  body 
compressed,  taper- 
ing to  the  tail, 
which  is  long  and 
prehensile;  the 
head  is  compara- 
tively small,  being 
enlarged  behind, 
and  contracted 
towards  the  muzzle, 
which  is  rather 
short.  The  crown 
is  covered  with 
scales;  the  nostrils 
lateral,  between  two 
plates.  Four  spe- 
cies of  this  genus 

are  recognised  by  naturalists,  all  of  which  have  been  described  by 
travellers  as  the  true  Boiguacu,  or  Boa- constrictor  of  Linnaeus. 
This  species  has  the  scaly  circle  of  the  orbit  separated  from  the 
upper  labial  plates  by  one  or  two  series  of  scales.  A  large  chain 
consisting  of  blackish  hexagonal  spots,  alternating  pale  oval  stains, 
notched  and  jagged,  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  and 
forming  a  very  elegant  design.  This  species  seems  to  be  strictly 
confined  to  tropical  America.  Humboldt  found  it  in  Guiana,  and  the 


64  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

Prince  de  Wied  observed  it  in  Brazil.  All  the  specimens  in  the 
British  Museum  are  from  that  part  of  the  New  World.  This  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Tlicoatl  and  Temacuilcahuilia  (the  words  meaning 
"  fighting  with  five  men "),  described  by  Hernandez,  the  latter 
name  being  derived  from  its  size  and  strength.  "  It  attacks/'  he 
says,  "  those  it  meets,  and  overpowers  them  with  such  force,  that 
if  it  once  coils  itself  round  their  necks,  it  strangles  and  kills  them, 
unless  it  bursts  itself  by  the  violence  of  its  own  efforts."  The 
same  author  states  that  he  has  seen  Serpents  as  thick  as  a  man's 
thigh,  which  had  been  taken  when  young  by  Indians  and  tamed. 
That  this  Boa  attains  an  immense  size  is  a  well-established  fact. 
Shaw  mentions  a  skin  in  the  British  Museum,  in  one  of  his 
lectures,  which  measured  thirty-five  feet  in  length. 

Three  other  species — the  Lamanda  (B.  diviniloqua} ,  from  Santa 
Lucia;  the  Emperor  (B.  imperator),  a  native  of  Mexico;  and 
B.  eques,  the  Chevalier  Boa  of  Peru — are  all  to  be  occasionally 
seen  in  the  Zoological  Gardens. 

The  Boa  anaconda,  more  properly  Eunectes  murinus,  is  also  a 
native  of  tropical  America.  The  name  of  Anaconda  has  become 
well  known  through  Mr.  Lewis's  celebrated  tale,  so  called,  in  which 
its  predatory  habits  are  displayed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enthral 
and  fascinate  the  reader,  as  the  author  makes  the  reptile  fascinate 
its  victim.  The  name,  Mr.  Bennett  tells  us,  is  of  Cinghalese  origin, 
and  is  popularly  applied  to  all  very  large  Serpents.  This  species 
is  of  a  brownish  tint,  with  a  double  series  of  colours  extending 
from  head  to  tail ;  the  sides  are  covered  with  annular  spots  with 
white  disks  surrounded  by  blackish  rings.  Seba  has  represented 
this  creature  lying  in  wait  for  Mice ;  but  this  is  probably  the 
prey  of  the  young  Anaconda.  Another  provincial  name,  "El 
Troga  Yenado"  (the  Deer  Swallower),  is  probably  applied  to 
the  matured  Reptile. 

The  following  description  of  the  actions  of  one  of  these  large 
non-venemous  Serpents,  which  accompanied  a  specimen  sent  to 
the  United  Service  Museum,  by  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter,  is  pro- 
bably a  fair  description  of  the  habits  of  all  the  large  Pythonida  : 
— "  This  species  is  not  venemous,  nor  is  it  known  to  injure 
man  (at  least  not  in  this  part  of  the  New  World) ;  however, 
the  natives  of  the  plain  stand  in  great  fear  of  it,  never  bathing 


ANACONDA. 


in  waters  where  it  is  known  to  exist.  Its  common  haunt,  or 
rather  domicile,  is  invariably  near  lakes,  swamps,  and  rivers  ; 
likewise  close  and  wet  ravines  produced  by  inundations  of  the 
periodical  rains.  Fishes,  as  well  as  other  animals  which  repair- 
there  to  drink,  are 
its  prey.  The 
creature  lurks 
watchfully  under 
cover  of  the  water, 
and,  while  the 
unsuspecting  ani- 
mal is  drinking, 
suddenly  makes  a 
dash  at  its  nose, 
and  with  a  grip  of 
its  back- reclining 
range  of  teeth, 
never  fails  to  se- 
cure the  terrified 
beast  beyond  the 
power  of  escape. 
In  an  instant  the 
slusrerish  waters 

O£3 

are  in  turbulence 
and  foam.  The 
whole  form  of  the 
Serpent  is  in  mo- 
tion ;  its  huge  and 
rapid  coilings  soon 
encircle  the  strug- 

i .  ...  j  Fjg.  16. — Aiiacouda  (h'u/tectes  murinus). 

glmg   victim,  aiia 

but  a  short  interval  elapses  ere  every  bone  in  the  body  of 
the  expiring  prey  is  broken."  Sir  Robert  then  describes  the 
manner  in  which  the  prey  is  swallowed,  being  previously  lubri- 
cated by  the  Serpent's  saliva  ;  but  Professor  T.  Bell,  after  carefully 
watching  the  constricting  Serpent's  mode  of  swallowing  its  prey, 
asserts  that  this  is  a  delusion.  "  The  mucus  is  not  poured 

F 


(56  OPHIDIAN  REPTILES. 

out  till  it  is  required  to  lubricate  the  dilated  jaws  and  throat  for 
the  seemingly  disproportionate  feat." 

[The  small,  but  very  distinct  family  of  Erycidce  have  the  body 
of  moderate  length,  cylindrical,  covered  with  small  and  short 
scales ;  the  tail  very  short,  with  only  a  single  series  of  subcaudal 
scales ;  head  somewhat  elongate ;  eye  rather  small,  with  vertical 
pupil.  Adult  individuals  have,,  like  the  Pythons,  a  short 
conical  prominence  in  a  groove  on  each  side  of  the  vent ;  this 
being  the  extremity  of  a  rudimentary  hind  limb.  "  The  Snakes 
of  this  family,"  remarks  Dr.  Giinther,  "shew  great  similarity  to 
the  Pythons  and  Boas,  with  regard  to  their  internal  structure  as 
well  as  to  their  external  characters.  But  their  tail  is  very  short, 
not  flexible,  and  much  less  prehensile ;  and  whilst  the  Serpents 
just  mentioned  are  more  or  less  arboreal,  frequenting  marshy 
places  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  the  ErytidtB  inhabit  dry,  sandy, 
or  stony  plains,  burrowing  with  the  greatest  facility  below  the 
surface,  and  entering  crevices  and  holes  in  search  of  their  prey, 
which  consists  of  Mice,  Lizards,  and  other  burrowing  Snakes. 
Probably  they  are  semi-nocturnal,  and  able  to  see  in  dark  places 
as  well  as  in  the  night.  They  are  found  in  Northern  Africa,  in 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  arid  parts  of  India,  and 
probably  in  Arabia  ;  two  species  are  known  to  have  been  brought 
from  Sikhim." 

The  Cursoria  elegans  is  said  to  be  from  Afghanistan ;  Eryx 
iaculus  inhabits  Greece  and  Egypt ;  and  there  is  also  E.  tkebaicus 
in  the  latter  country,  and  E.  Johnii  in  India.  Another  Indian 
species  is  the  Gonyylophis  conicus,  which  the  natives  erroneously 
persist  in  declaring  to  be  venemous.  The  Eryx  Johnii  is  fre- 
quently found  in  the  possession  of  the  serpent-charmers  of  its 
native  country,  who  mutilate  the  end  of  its  short,  thick  tail  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  scarred  extremity  somewhat  resembles  the 
form  of  the  head.  Such  specimens  are  shewn  as  deadly  Two-headed 
Snakes,  and,  as  such,  are  occasionally  brought  alive  to  Europe. 
An  example  of  this  species  lived  in  the  London  Zoological 
Gardens  for  about  eight  years,  and  fed  regularly  on  young  Mice. 
The  keeper  assured  Dr.  Giinther  that  it  frequently  covered  its 
prey  with  saliva.  It  always  kept  itself  hidden  below  the  gravel 


ACKOCHORDID^E.  67 

at  the  bottom  of  its  cage.     This  species  attains  to  a  length  of 
nearly  four  feet,  the  tail  measuring  but  four  inches. 

The  Acrockordida  constitute  a  very  remarkable  small  family,  of 
which  one  genus  is  terrene,  and  another  highly  aquatic  in  its 
habits.  Whether  a  third  genus,  the  Javanese  Xenodermus,  should 
be  referred  to  it,  is  doubtful  in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Giinther.  These 
Snakes  have  the  body  of  moderate  length,  rounded,  or  slightly  com- 
pressed, and  covered  with  small  wart-like,  not  imbricate,  tubercular 
or  spiny  scales ;  tail  rather  short,  prehensile ;  head  rather  small, 
not  distinctly  separated  from  the  neck,  and  covered  with  scales 
like  those  of  the  body ;  nostrils  close  together,  at  the  top  of  the 
snout ;  teeth  short,  but  strong,  of  nearly  equal  size,  and  situate 
both  in  the  jaws  and  on  the  palate.  These  serpents  are  viviparous. 
One  of  them,  Acrockordus  javamcus,  inhabits  Java  and  the 
Malayan  peninsula,  where  it  is  considered  rare.  It  grows  to  a 
length  of  eight  feet,  and  its  habits  are  terrene.  The  late  Dr. 
Cantor  justly  compares  its  physiognomy  to  that  of  a  thorough-bred 
bull-dog ;  a  female  in  his  possession  brought  forth  no  fewer  than 
twenty- seven  young  in  the  course  of  about  twenty-five  minutes; 
they  were  active,  and  bit  fiercely.  Hornstedt  found  a  quantity  of 
undigested  fruits  in  the  stomach  of  this  Serpent !  Upon  which 
Dr.  Giinther  remarks  that  no  opportunity  of  making  further 
observations  on  the  habits  of  this  remarkable  Snake  should  be  lost. 
The  aquatic  member  of  this  family,  Chersydrus  gramdatus,  in- 
habits from  the  coasts  of  India  to  those  of  New  Guinea  and  the 
Philippine  Islands.  Sometimes  it  is  met  with  at  a  distance  of 
three  or  four  miles  from  the  shore.  Mr.  W.  Theobald  remarks 
that  it  is  plentiful  in  the  Bassein  River  (in  British  Burmah),  in 
salt  water  below  Gnaputau,  and,  with  various  other  Sea  Snakes, 
is  frequently  swept  by  the  tide  into  the  fishing  baskets  of  the 
natives.  The  ebb-tide,  running  like  a  sluice,  sweeps  various  Fishes, 
Crustaceans,  Snakes,  and  even  Porpoises  occasionally,  into  the  broad 
mouths  of  those  baskets,  where  they  are  at  once  jammed  into  a 
mass  at  the  narrow  end  of  the  creel.  "  The  Chersydrus"  he  adds, 
"  is  more  nearly  connected  with  the  Hydrophidce  than  with  the 
next  family,  being  as  essentially  aquatic  as  any  of  the  former,  to 
which,  save  from  its  wanting  the  poison-gland,  it  might  be  appro- 

F2 


63  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

priately  referred.      Indeed,  it  has  been  erroneously  asserted  by 
some  authors  to  be  venernous." 

The  Homalopsida  are  an  extensive  family  of  Snakes,  of  tho- 
roughly aquatic  habits,  which  are  only  occasionally  found  on  the 
margins  of  rivers ;  several  of  them  enter  the  sea,  and  in  some 
parts  of  their  organization  they  approximate  to  the  true  marine 
Snakes.  They  may  be  easily  recognised  by  the  position  of  the 
nostrils  on  the  top  of  the  snout,  which  enables  them  to  breathe  by 
raising  only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  head  out  of  the  water  ;  an 
arrangement  which  is  likewise  seen  in  the  Hippopotamus,  the 
Crocodile,  the  Sea  Snakes,  and  other  aquatic  animals.  Many  of 
them  have  a  distinctly  prehensile  tail,  by  means  of  which  they 
hold  on  to  projecting  objects.  Their  food  consists  either  entirely 
of  Fishes,  or,  in  some  species,  of  Crustaceans  also.  All  appear  to  be 
viviparous,  and  the  act  of  parturition  is  performed  in  the  water. 
Not  any  of  them  attain  a  large  size — about  three  or  four  feet  in 
length,  or  considerably  less;  and  in  captivity  they  refuse  to  feed. 
All  the  Asiatic  species  of  this  family  have  a  grooved  fang  at 
the  hinder  extremity  of  the  maxillary  bone.  The  species  are 
numerous,  and  are  arranged  into  many  generic  divisions.  The 
majority  are  from  the  grand  Indian  region,  extending  to  China 
and  to  Australia,  but  there  are  also  several  from  the  JNew  World. 
The  Herpeton  tentaculatum,  of  Siam,  is  very  remarkable  from  its 
snout  terminating  in  two  flexible,  cylindrical,  scaly  tubercles,  which 
are  supposed  to  be  employed  as  organs  of  touch  under  water — 
perhaps  to  discern  its  food,  which  as  yet  has  not  been  ascertained. 
The  largest  known  example  of  this  curious  Snake  is  only  twenty- 
five  inches  long,  of  which  the  tail  measures  six  inches. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  first  family  of  Poisonous  Snakes,  that  of 

THE  SEA  SNAKES  (Hydropkida), 

Which  are  very  distinct  from  all  that  follow,  though  less  so  from 
certain  of  the  harmless  species  appertaining  to  the  two  families 
last  treated  of.  Some  of  their  distinctions  have  been  already 
noticed  (p.  45),  but  they  are  especially  characterised  by  their 
highly  compressed  tail,  indicative  of  their  thoroughly  aquatic 
habits.  According  to  Dr.  Giinther,  there  is  no  other  group  of 


SEA  SNAKES.  69 

Reptiles  the  species  of  which  are  so  little  known,  and  the  synonymy 
of  which  is  so  much  confused,  as  that  of  the  Sea  Snakes.  Most 
naturalists  who  have  worked  at  them  have  been  misled  by  the  idea 
that  the  species  were  not  nearly  so  numerous  as  they  actually  are. 
Mr.  W.  Theobald  makes  out  as  many  as  twenty-five  inhabiting  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  adjacent  seas,  to  which  area  this  group  of 
Reptiles  is  mainly  confined,  a  few  species  extending  to  northern  Aus- 
tralia, and  one,  the  most  emphatically  pelagic,  the  P elands  bicolor, 
even  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  One  genus  only,  Platurus,  approaches 
the  Land  Snakes  in  several  of  its  characters ;  having  much  the 
physiognomy  of  an  Elaps,  with  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  not  turned 
upwards  behind,  as  in  other  Sea  Snakes ;  the  eye  also  is  rather 
small,  nor  is  the  tail  at  all  prehensile.  There  are  two  species  of 
this  particular  form,  one  of  which,  P.  scutatm,  is  rather  common, 
and  its  geographic  range  extends  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the 
China  seas  to  the  coasts  of  New  Zealand ;  the  distribution  of  the 
other,  P.  Fischeri,  being  nearly  as  extensive.  The  great  genus 
Hydrophis  has  the  posterior  part  of  the  body  highly  compressed, 
and  most  of  the  species  are  more  or  less  of  a  bluish  lead -colour, 
like  that  of  the  sea,  or  black,  banded  with  white  or  yellowish 
white.  They  are  so  abundant  in  the  Indian  seas  that  some  of 
them  are  taken  with  every  haul  of  a  fishing-net,  and  they  are 
helpless  and  seemingly  blind  when  out  of  the  water ;  the  fisher- 
men commonly  seizing  them,  one  after  the  other,  by  the  nape 
and  throwing  them  back  into  the  sea.  Some  of  them  (Micro- 
cephalophis  of  Lesson)  have  the  head  very  small  and  the  neck  ex- 
ceedingly slender,  while  the  compressed  body  is  large  and  thick. 

THE  COLUBRINE  YENEMOUS  SNAKES, 

These  are  comprised  under  the  one  family,  Elapida,  all  of  which 
have  an  erect,  immovable,  grooved,  or  perforated  fang  in  the  fore- 
part of  the  maxillary  bone.  There  is  little  in  their  external 
appearance  to  distinguish  them  from  the  harmless  Colubrine 
Snakes,  to  which  they  are  more  nearly  akin,  in  all  but  their 
poison-fangs,  than  they  are  to  the  Rattlesnakes  and  Vipers ;  yet 
some  of  the  most  poisonous  of  Ophidians  appertain  to  this  family, 
as  exemplified  by  the  well-known  Cobras  of  the  Indian  region  and 


70  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

of  Africa,  and  also  by  some  of  the  worst  Snakes  that  inhabit 
Australia.  In  the  colony  of  Victoria  alone  as  many  as  ten  species 
of  Snakes  are  known,  one  only  of  which,  Morelia  variegata,  is 
harmless ;  and  one  only  of  them,  the  formidable  Death-adder 
(Acanthopis  antarctica}^  belongs  to  the  sub-order  of  the  Yiperine 
Snakes.  The  rest  are  included  among  the  Colubriform  Yenemous 
Snakes,  and  most  of  the  accidents  from  poisonous  Snakes  in  that 
colony  are  due  to  what  is  there  known  as  the  Carpet  Snake, 
Hoplocephalus  curtus,  while  the  Snake  that  bears  the  same  name 
in  the  adjacent  colony  of  ]NTew  South  Wales  is  the  innocuous 
Morelia  spilotes,  which  is  a  small  Serpent  of  the  fa\m\yo£Pythonidce. 
Of  the  total  number  of  Snakes  known  in  all  Australia,  by  far  the 
greater  number  are  veneraous,  which  is  the  reverse  of  what  occurs 
elsewhere.  Only  about  five  species,  however,  are  really  dangerous 
throughout  the  .great  island-continent,  for  in  many  of  them  the 
poison  is  by  no  means  virulent.  Thus,  of  Diemamia  psammophis, 
which  sometimes  exceeds  four  feet  in  length,  Mr.  Krelft  remarks 
that  "  its  bite  does  not  cause  any  more  irritation  than  the  sting  of 
a  bee."  Also,  that  "the  bite  of  Hoplocephalus  variegatus  is  not 
sufficiently  strong  to  endanger  the  life  of  a  man.  I  have  been 
wounded  by  it  several  times, "  writes  Mr.  Krefft,  "  and  experienced 
no  bad  symptoms  beyond  u  slight  headache ;  the  spot  where  the 
fang  entered  turning  blue  to  about  the  size  of  a  shilling  for  a  few 
days."  Again,  of  Brachysoma  diadema,  "  this  very  handsome 
little  Snake  is  venemous,  but  never  offers  to  bite,  and  may  be 
handled  with  impunity."  Far  otherwise,  however,  is  the  venom  of 
Hoplocephalus  curtus,  and  also  of  some  others.  II.  curtus  is  one  of 
the  worst  Snakes  of  Australia,  where  it  inhabits  the  more  temperate 
parts  of  the  country  from  east  to  west  Its  bite  is  almost  as  deadly 
as  that  of  the  Indian  Cobra,  to  which  it  is,  indeed,  considerably 
allied.  "  A  good-sized  Dog  bitten  became  paralyzed  within  three 
minutes,  and  was  dead  in  fifty  minutes  afterwards ;  a  Goat  died 
in  thirty-five  minutes ;  a  Porcupine  Ant-eater  (Echidna  hystrix] 
lived  six  hours ;  and  a  common  Tortoise,  an  animal  which  will 
live  a  day  with  its  head  cut  off,  died  in  five  hours  after  being 
bitten."  The  H.  superbus  replaces  it  in  Tasmania. 

The  Cobras  (Naja)  are  widely  known,  alike  from  the  virulence 
of    their    poison,    and   for   their    remarkable   dilatable    disk    or 


COLUBEINE  SXAKES.  71 

"  hood  "  on  the  nape,  the  ribs  which  support  this  hood  being  much 
elongated.  Two  species  are  commonly  recognised,  the  Cobra  di 
capella  of  Southern  Asia  (Naja  tripudians),  and  the  Asp  (N.  hoje) 
of  Africa ;  but  there  are  marked  local  varieties  of  both  species, 
and  the  N.  sputatrix  of  the  Malay  countries  should  probably  be 
recognised  as  a  third  species.  Those  of  India,  with  Ceylon,  have  a 
mark  like  a  pair  of  spectacles  upon  the  hood,  while  those  of  Burmah 
and  the  neighbouring  countries  eastward  have  only  an  oval  black 
spot  upon  it.  In  India  the  commonest  colour  of  this  formidable 
reptile  is  uniform  brown,  though  many  are  of  a  pale  yellowish 
straw  colour,  and  there  are  others  of  every  shade  between  that  and 
black.  It  grows  to  a  length  of  about  five  feet,  seldom  more. 
"  Almost  every  writer  on  the  natural  productions  of  the  East 
Indies,"  remarks  Dr.  Gimther,  "  has  contributed  to  the  natural 
history  of  this  Snake,  which  has  been  surrounded  by  such  a 
number  of  fabulous  stories,  that  their  repetition  and  contradiction 
would  fill  a  volume.'7  It  is  very  generally  diffused  over  the 
Indian  region,  though,  as  Mr.  Theobald  notices,  from  its  nocturnal 
habits  it  is  less  often  seen  than  many  harmless  species.  "  This 
Snake  is,  I  believe,"  he  adds,  "of  inoffensive  habits,  unless 
irritated,  but  is,  of  course,  a  dangerous  neighbour  to  have  in  a 
house.*  Not  only  in  Burmah,  where  the  respect  for  animal  life  is 
greatest,  but  in  India  also  I  have  known  a  Cobra  enticed  or  forced 
into  an  earthen  jar,  and  then  carried  by  two  men  across  a  river,  or 
some  distance  from  the  village,  and  liberated.  Dr.  Giinther 
remarks  that,  '  singularly  enough,  it  has  never  been  obtained  in 
the  valley  of  Nepal/  This  is  very  easily  accounted  for,"  con- 
tinues Mr.  Theobald,  "  since  few  would  venture  to  kill  a  Cobra, 
oven  for  scientific  purposes,  in  the  rigorously  Hindu  state  of 
Nepal.  In  British  India,  decent  Hindus  wrill  not  kill  a  Cobra  ; 
and  if  one  has  taken  up  his  abode  in  a  house,  he  is  permitted  to 
remain,  or  else  carefully  inveigled  into  an  earthen-pot,  and  carried 
away  as  described.  Of  course  only  the  orthodox  Hindu  is  so 
careful  to  abstain  from  injuring  the  Cobra,  and  their  reverential 

*  Although  the  Cobra  di  capella  is  so  plentiful  in  India,  we  could  never  hear  of 
one  instance  of  a  European  being  stung  by  one  during  a  residence  of  more  than 
twenty-one  years  in  that  country.  They  prey  chiefly  on  Eats,  the  presence  of  which 
is  the  attraction  which  brings  them  about  human  habitations  ;  and  they  also  prey 
occasionally  upon  young  chickens,  and  commonly  upon  Toads. — ED. 


72  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

feeling  is  now  perhaps  rather  the  exception  than  the  rule,  though 
probably  as  strong  as  ever  in  Nepal."  A  fine  example  of  the 
still  more  formidable  gigantic  Cobra  (Ilamadryas  elaps),  to  be 
noticed  presently,  was  obtained  from  an  earthen  pot  which  had 
floated  out  to  sea. 

The  late  Sir  J.  Emerson  Tennent  mentions  that  "  the  Cingha- 
lese  remark  that  if  one  Cobra  be  destroyed  near  a  house,  its  com- 
panion is  almost  certain  to  be  discovered  immediately  after — a 
popular  belief  which  I  had  an  opportunity  of  verifying  on  more 
than  one  occasion.  Once,  when  a  Snake  of  this  description  was 
killed  in  a  bath  of  the  Government  House  at  Colombo,  its  mate 
was  found  in  the  same  spot  the  day  after ;  and  again,  at  my  own 
stables,  a  Cobra  of  five  feet  long  having  fallen  into  the  well,  which 
was  too  deep  to  permit  its  escape,  its  companion,  of  the  same  size, 
was  found  the  same  morning  in  an  adjoining  drain.*  On  this 
occasion  the  Snake,  which  had  been  several  hours  in  the  well, 
swam  with  ease,  raising  its  head  and  hood  above  water  ;  and 
instances  have  repeatedly  occurred  of  the  Cobra  di  capella  volun- 
tarily taking  considerable  excursions  by  sea"  (or  by  rivers,  as  the 
writer  has  personally  witnessed).] 

Cobras  are  much  dreaded,  for  they  instil  the  most  subtle  poison 
into  their  bites.  Their  manners  are  very  singular.  When  at 
rest  the  neck  of  the  animal  is  no  larger  in  diameter  than  the  head; 
but  when  under  the  influence  of  passion  and  irritation  the  neck 
swells  at  the  same  time  that  the  animal  raises  the  front  part  of  his 
body  vertically,  holding  this  part  straight  and  rigid  as  an 
iron  bar.  The  lower  part  of  the  body  rests  upon  the  ground,  and 
serves  as  a  support  to  the  upper  part,  which  is  movable  and  capable 
of  locomotion.  This  faculty  of  dilating  the  neck  is  as  striking  a  trait 
n  the  organization  of  the  Cobras,  as  the  rattle  is  in  Crotatus. 
The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Egypt  adored  them ;  they  attributed 
to  their  protection  the  preservation  of  grain,  and  allowed  them  to 
live  in  the  midst  of  their  cultivated  fields.  The  Cobra  is  no  longer 
an  object  of  adoration  in  the  East,  but  is  held  sacred  by  many 
people,  and  it  serves  in  nearly  every  country  of  Asia  as  a  very 

*  "  Pliny,"  remarks  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent,  "  notices  the  affection  that  subsists  between 
the  male  and  female  Asp  (or  African  Cobra) ;  and  that  if  one  of  them  happens  to  be 
killed,  the  other  seeks  to  avenge  its  death  "—lib.  viii.  c.  37. 


.big.  17.—  Snake-charmers. 


74 


OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 


curious  spectacle ;    being    the    Serpent  "chiefly   used    by   snake- 
charmers  in  these  countries,  terrible  as  it  seems  to  us. 

The  action  of  the  snake-charmer  is  as  follows  :  he  takes  in  his 
hand  a  root,  the  virtue  of  which  is  supposed  to  preserve  him  from 
the  venemous  effects  of  the  bite  of  the  Cobra.  Drawing  the 
reptile  from  the  cage  in  which  he  keeps  it  confined,  he  irritates 
it  by  presenting  a  stick  to  it ;  the  animal  immediately  erects 
the  fore  part  of  its  body,  swells  its  neck,  opens  its  jaws,  ex- 
tends its  forked  tongue,  its  eyes  glitter,  and  it  begins  to  hiss. 
Then  a  sort  of  battle  commences  between  the  Serpent  and  the 


Fig.  18.— Hooded  Snake. 

charmer;  the  latter,  striking  up  a  monotonous  sort  of  song, 
opposes  his  closed  fist  to  his  enemy,  sometimes  using  his  right 
hand  and  sometimes  his  left.  The  animal  fixes  its  eyes  upon 
the  fist  which  threatens  it,  follows  all  its  movements,  balances 
,its  head  and  body,  and  thus  simulates  a  kind  of  dance.  Other 
charmers  obtain  from  the  Cobra  an  alternating  and  cadenced 
movement  of  the  neck  by  the  help  of  sounds  which  are  drawn 


SNAKE-CHARMING.  75 

from  a  whistle  or  small  flute.  It  is  said  that  these  mysterious 
jugglers  are  able,  by  some  sympathetic  action  they  possess, 
to  plunge  these  dangerous  enemies  into  a  sort  of  lethargy  and 
death-like  rigidity,  and  to  bring  them  at  will  out  of  this  mo- 
mentary torpor.  It  is  certain,  at  any  rate,  that  they  handle 
these  animals,  whose  bite  is  extremely  dangerous,  with  consider- 
able impunity,  and  without  having  in  any  way  neutralized  or 
intercepted  the  venom.  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  these  charmers 
take  the  precaution  of  exhausting  the  venom  of  the  Cobra  every 
day  by  forcing  it  to  bite  something  several  times  before  exhibiting 
it.  It  is  also  certain  that  they  more  frequently  draw  the  poison 
fangs — a  wound  from  which  can  kill  in  the  course  of  two  or  three 
hours. 

The  Asp  (Naja  haje)  has  a  less  dilatable  neck  ;  it  is  of  a  greenish 
colour,  and  marked  with  brownish  spots.  It  is  smaller  than  the 
former ;  is  found  in  the  west  and  south  of  Africa ;  and  is  espe- 
cially common  in  Egypt.  It  was  said  to  have  been  this  Reptile 
which  caused  the  death  of  Cleopatra. 

[The  genus  Hamadryas  of  Cantor  (Ophiophagus  of  Giinther) 
differs  very  little  from  the  true  Cobras,  but  has  a  less  developed 
hood,  and  a  single  small  tooth  placed  at  some  distance  behind  the 
fang.  The  only  species,  II.  elaps,  attains  to  thirteen  feet  in  length, 
and  is  proportionately  formidable,  being  much  less  timid  and 
retiring  in  its  habits  than  the  Cobras  of  the  genus  JWaja.  it 
preys  Habitually  oil  other  Snakes,  and  seems  to  be  more  plentiful 
eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  than  it  is  in  India.  In  Burmah  it 
is  styled  the  Gnan,  and  Mr.  Theobald  tells  us  that  its  venom  is 
fatal  in  a  few  minutes.  "  One  of  these  Snakes,"  he  adds,  "  was 
brought  in  alive,  and  a  snake-charmer  came  up  to  display  his 
command  over  the  animal.  At  first  (as  I  am  told)  the  Snake 
seemed  cowed  by  the  authoritative  '  Hah '  of  the  man  ;  but  sud- 
denly, through  some  carelessness  on  his  part,  the  Snake  struck  him 
on  the  wrist.  The  poor  fellow  at  once  ran  off  home  to  get  an 
antidote,  but  fell  down  before  reaching  his  own  door,  and  died  in 
a  few  minutes.  When  at  Tongku,"  continues  Mr.  Theobald,  "  I 
heard  a  case  of  an  Elephant  being  killed  by  one  of  these  Snakes, 
which  I  have  no  reason  for  doubting.  The  Elephant  was  a  fine 
powerful  male,  and  was  pulling  down  with  his  trunk  some  creepers 


76  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

or  boughs,  when  a  large  '  Griian/  which  was  disturbed  in  the  tree, 
struck  the  Elephant  on  the  trunk  between  the  eyes.  The  Elephant 
at  once  retreated,  became  faint,  and  died  in  about  three  hours." 
This  terrible  Snake  would  appear  to  be  not  uncommon  in  the 
Andaman  Islands,  and  its  range  of  distribution  extends  through 
the  Malay  countries  to  the  Philippines  and  to  New  Guinea. 

The  genus  Bungarus  is  so  called  from  the  vernacular  appellation 
of  Bungarum,  which  is  applied  to  one  of  the  species  on  the  Coro- 
mandel  coast.  Some  of  them  are  very  like  Cobras  without  the 
hood,  as  the  "  Kerait "  (B.  c&ruleus),  which  is  a  much-dreaded 
Snake  in  India,  but  the  geographic  range  of  which  extends  neither 
to  the  countries  eastward  nor  to  Ceylon,  The  Snakes  of  this  genus 
have  a  row  of  broad  hexagonal  scales  along  the  middle  of  the  back. 
The  Kerait  grows  to  four  feet  and  a  half  in  length,  and  has  the 
upper  parts  of  a  bluish  or  brownish  black,  either  uniform  or  more 
generally  marked  with  numerous  narrow  white  cross-lines,  which 
mostly  radiate  from  a  white  vertebral  spot.  In  its  habits  it 
resembles  the  Cobra,  preying  on  small  Mammalia,  Lizards,  Toads, 
and  probably  other  Snakes  occasionally.  The  "Raj-samp"  (lite- 
rally Lord  Snake)  is  a  larger  and  thicker  species  than  the  Kerait, 
beautifully  marked  throughout  with  alternate  broad  rings  of  black 
and  golden-yellow.  This  one  is  found  almost  generally  through- 
out the  Indian  region,  and  would  seem  to  prey  entirely  on  other 
Snakes,  especially  of  the  Tropidonotus  genus.  It  is  of  verv 
sluggish  habits,  and  frequents  moist  places  and  the  vicinity  of 
water.  A  species,  or  local  variety  (B.  ceylonicus),  takes  its  place 
in  Ceylon,  and  there  is  also  a  kindred  species  (B.  semifasciatus) 
in  China  and  Formosa.  According  to  Cantor,  the  Bungarums  are 
capable  of  darting  nearly  the  anterior  half  of  the  body.  Their 
bite  is  very  dangerous ;  but  "  the  magnitude  of  the  danger," 
remarks  Dr.  Giinther,,  "  depends,  as  in  other  venemous  Snakes,  on 
many  circumstances — chiefly  on  the  size  and  energy  of  the  indi- 
vidual Snake  and  on  the  place  of  the  wound.  As  the  fangs  of  the 
Bungarums  are  comparatively  short,  the  wound  is  always  super- 
ficial, and  can  be  easily  excised  and  cauterised  ;  also,  experiments 
made  on  some  of  the  lower  animals  show  that  the  general  effect 
on  the  whole  system  becomes  visible  only  after  a  lapse  of  time." 
Of  poisonous  Snakes  akin  to  the  Bungarums,  there  are  the 


POISONOUS  SNAKES.  77 

Xenurelaps  bung ar aides,  founded  on  a  single  specimen  received 
from   the   Khasya   hills  (north  of  Sylhet)  ;  and  the  Meg&rophis 
Jlaviceps,    which    inhabits    the   Indo-Chinese    and   the    Malayan 
countries,  but  not  India.     The  latter  attains  to  more  than  six  feet 
in  length,  and  when  alive  or  fresh  the  head  and  neck  are  vivid 
blood-red,  which  soon  fades  to  a  pale  buff'  hue  in  specimens  im- 
mersed in  spirit,  and  hence  the  faulty  name  of  jtaviceps.      As 
many  as  seven  genera —  GlypJwdon,  with  two  ascertained  species ; 
Diemansia,  with  four  ;  Hoploc-ephalus,  with  eight ;  Pseudechis,  with 
one ;  Pseudo-naja,  with  one ;  Brachysoma,  with  three ;  and  Ver- 
micalla,  with  one — are  peculiar  to  Australia  with  Tasmania,  making 
twenty  known  species  of  Colubriform  Yenemous  Snakes  in  that 
range  of  territory,  where  others  doubtless  remain  to  be  discovered ; 
and  there  is  one  described  as  Pseudo-elaps  superciliaris,  which  is 
suspected  to  be  a  second  species  of  Pseudo-naja.     The  Cyrtophis 
scutatus  of  South  Africa  is  a  sort  of  hoodless  Cobra,  without  any 
small  teeth  behind  its  fangs.     In  America  there  is  only  the  genus 
Elaps,  with  numerous  species,  which  are  mostly  of  small  size,  and 
in  some  instances  are  very  brightly  coloured,  as  one  of  the  Coral 
Snakes*  of  Brazil   (E.  corallinus),  which  is   beautiful  coral- red, 
with  the  body  encircled  by  equidistant  black  rings.     The  genus 
Elaps  in  America  is  represented  in  Africa  by  Homorelaps,  in  the 
Indian  region  by  Callophis,  and  in  Australia  by  Vermicalla.     In 
general,  these  are   small  and  slender  Snakes,  too  much  so  to  be 
held  in  much  dread.     What  Dr.  Gunther  remarks  of  the  species 
of  Callophis  will  apply,  as  we  believe,  equally  to  the  others  : — 
"  They  appear  to  prefer  hilly  countries  to  the  plains,  live  con- 
stantly on  the  ground,  and  are  slow  in  their  movements.    In  their 
habits,  in  their  form,  and  in  their  powerless  muscular  organization, 
they  show  the  greatest  similarity  to  the  Calamarice ;  and  this  is 
why  the  Callop  hides  feed  almost  entirely  on  the  latter,  the  venemous 
Snake  being  able  to  overpower  the  non- venemous.      Both  of  these 
genera  have  also  the  same  geographical  distribution  ;  and  Ceylon, 
where  we  do  not  find  the  Calamarice,  is  not  inhabited  by  a  single 
Callophis.     If  we  are  allowed  to  judge  from  the  number  of  indi- 
viduals of  both  genera  brought   to  Europe   in   collections,   the 
Calamarice  are  about   twice  as  numerous   as  the   Callophide*." 

*  This  name  being  also  applied  to  the  harmless  Tortrix  scytak  (vide  p.  46.) 


78  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

Cantor,  who  had  opportunities  of  observing  them,  states  that 
they  are  generally  seen  lying  motionless,  with  the  body  thrown 
into  many  irregular  folds,  but  not  coiled.  Although  they  are 
diurnal,  their  sight,  from  the  minuteness  of  the  pupil,  appears 
to  be  as  defective  as  their  sense  of  hearing,  and  they  may  be 
closely  approached  without  apparently  being  aware  of  danger.  He 
never  observed  them  to  strike  voluntarily,  even  when  provoked, 
and  he  had  difficulty  in  making  an  adult  C.  gracilis  bite  a  Fowl ; 
although,  of  course,  the  venom  of  these  Snakes  is  as  virulent  as 
that  of  a  Viper,  the  animals  used  for  the  experiments  having  died 
in  the  course  of  from  one  to  three  hours  after  they  had  been 
wounded.  Therefore  the  greatest  caution  should  be  observed  in 
catching  or  handling  these  Snakes.  The  shortness  of  their  fangs 
and  the  small  quantity  of  their  poisonous  fluid,  however,  will 
always  give  a  very  fair  chance  of  recovery  if  the  proper  remedies 
be  applied,  should  an  accident  occur.  Two  or  three  species 
of  this  genus  inhabit  India,  and  the  rest  are  found  in  the  Indo- 
Chinese  and  Malayan  countries,  one  of  the  most  common  of  them 
( C.  intestinalis)  having  likewise  been  received  from  the  Philippines. 
The  C.  nigrescens  of  the  mountains  of  southern  India  attain  to  four 
feet  in  length,  but  they  are  mostly  about  half  of  that  size,  or  even 
smaller. 

Lastly,  we  arrive  at 

THE  VIPERINE  SNAKES, 

Which  have  a  long,  perforated,  erectile  fang  on  the  maxillary 
bone,  which  is  extremely  short  and  bears  no  other  teeth.  This  is 
described  in  greater  detail  subsequently  (pp.  93,  94).  They 
are  arranged  under  the  two  families  Croialidce  and  Viperidce. 

The  Crotalidft,  or  Pit  Vipers,  have  the  body  robust,  the  tail  of 
moderate  length,  or  rather  short,  sometimes  prehensile;  head 
broad,  sub- triangular,  frequently  scaly  above  or  imperfectly 
shielded ;  a  deep  pit  on  the  side  of  the  snout,  between  the  eye  and 
nostril ;  the  eye  of  moderate  size,  with  vertical  pupil.  They  are 
viviparous.  The  Pit  Vipers  are  found  only  in  Asia  and  America ; 
those  of  the  New  "World  surpassing  the  Asiatic  species  in  size,  and 
therefore  they  are  much  more  dangerous.  Some  live  in  bushes,  others 


FER-DE-LANCE. 


79 


on  the  ground.  A  rudiment  of  the  curious  caudal  appendage  of 
the  American  Rattlesnakes  is  found  as  a  simple  spine-like  scale  in 
the  Asiatic  species,  constituting  the  genus  Halys. 

Some  have  the  head  covered  with  scales,  having  small  shields 
on  the  edge  of  the  forehead  and  brows  ;  the  cheeks  are  scaly,  and 
the  tail  ends  in  a  spine.  Of  these,  the  American  genus  Craspe- 
docephalus  and  the  Asiatic  genus  Trimeresurus  have  the  sub-caudal 
plates  two-rowed  to  the  tip. 

The  genus  Craspedocephalus  comprises  the  terrible  Fer- de-lance 
of  certain  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  which  occurs  on  the  main- 
land of  South  America,  where  four  other  species  are  recognised 
— one  of  them  being  found  as  far  north  as  Mexico.] 

The  Fer-de-lance  (<7.  lanceolatus)  is  met  with  in  Martinique, 


r-  iftfeA 


Fig.  19.— Fer-de-lance  (Trigonocnphala  mycalcE}, 


Santa  Lucia,  and  in  the  little  island  of  Boquin,  near  St.  Vincent. 
It  attains  to  a  length  of  nearly  six  feet ;  its  colour  is  not  always 
yellow,  sometimes  it  is  greyish,  and  even  marbled  with  brown ;  the 


80  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

head,  which  is  large,  is  remarkable  for  a  triangular  space,  the  three 
angles  of  which  are  occupied  by  the  muzzle  and  the  two  eyes. 

This  space,  raised  at  its  front  edge,  represents  the  head  of  a 
lance,  large  at  its  base  and  slightly  rounded  at  the  summit.  On 
each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  one,  sometimes  two,  and  even  three, 
fangs  are  visible  ;  all  of  which  the  animal  makes  use  of  for  the 
purpose  of  wounding  and  discharging  his  venom.  Of  the  poison 
fangs  of  the  Fer-de-lance,  Professor  Owen  remarks,  "  that  they 
(in  common  with  the  Rattlesnake  and  Yiper)  are  coated  with  a 
thin  layer  of  a  sub-transparent  and  minutely  cellular  cement. 
This  disposition  of  the  dentinal  tubes  is  obedient  to  the  general 
law  of  vertically ,  and  the  external  surface  of  the  tooth  can  be 
exposed  to  no  other  pressure  than  that  of  the  turgescent  duct 
with  which  it  is  in  contact."  It  feeds  on  Lizards  and  the 
smaller  Mammals,  especially  Rats,  but  it  is  capable  of  killing 
large  animals,  such  as  Oxen.  The  Negroes  working  among 
the  sugar-cane,  and  soldiers  in  the  Martinique  service,  often 
become  victims  to  the  Fer-de-lance.  This  Snake  is,  unfor- 
tunately, very  prolific,  and  its  venom  is  so  subtle,  that  animals 
stung  by  it  die  three  hours,  twelve  hours,  one  day,  or  several 
after  the  accident ;  but  their  death  is  certain.  The  wound  pro- 
duces extreme  pain,  and  is  immediately  followed  by  more  or 
less  livid  swelling;  the  body  becomes  cold  and  insensible,  the 
pulse  and  respiration  become  slower,  the  head  becomes  confused, 
coma  appears,  and  the  skin  turns  bluish ;  sometimes  extreme 
thirst  and  spitting  of  blood  are  experienced,  and  paralysis  attacks 
the  whole  system. 

Another  species  is  known  in  Brazil  as  the  "  Jararaca  "  (C.  brasi- 
liensis),  and  there  is  a  third  in  the  same  country,  the  C.  bilineatus  ; 
a  fourth,  C.  elegans,  is  believed  to  be  from  the  west  coast  of  South 
America ;  and  a  fifth,  C.  atrox,  inhabits  from  Demerara  to  Mexico. 
All  of  them  are  most  highly  formidable  and  dangerous  Snakes, 
which  are  held  in  especial  dread. 

The  ten  or  more  species  of  Trimeresurus  occupy  their  place  in 
the  woodland  districts  of  tropical  Asia  and  its  islands.  In  them 
the  hinder  labial  shields  are  the  smallest.  The  head  is  triangular, 
covered  above  with  small  scales,  except  the  foremost  part  of  the 
snout  and  the  superciliary  region,  which  generally  are  shielded  ; 


VIPERINE  SNAKES.  81 

body  with  more  or  less  distinctly  keeled  scales,  in  from  seventeen 
to  twenty-five  series.  Body  and  tail  of  moderate  length,  prehensile. 
These  reptiles  are  more  or  less  arboreal,  as  is  indicated  by  their 
prehensile  tail,  and  by  their  green  or  varied  coloration.  "  In 
general,"  remarks  Dr.  Giinther,  "  they  are  sluggish,  not  attempting 
to  move  out  of  the  way,  and  as  they  very  closely  resemble  the 
branch  on  which  they  rest,  they  are  frequently  not  perceived  until 
they  prepare  to  dart,  vibrating  the  tail,  and  uttering  a  faint 
hissing  sound,  or  until  they  have  struck  the  disturber  of  their  rest. 
Accidents  caused  by  them,  therefore,  are  not  of  uncommon  occur- 
rence, and  it  is  a  fortunate  circumstance  that  comparatively  few 
of  them  attain  to  a  size  of  more  than  two  feet,  so  that  the  conse- 
quences of  their  bite  are  less  to  be  dreaded  than  that  of  various 
other  poisonous  Snakes.  Indeed,  numerous  cases  are  on  record 
which  show  that  the  symptoms  indicating  a  general  effect  on  the 
system  were  of  short  duration,  extending  only  over  from  two  to 
forty-eight  hours,  and  confined  to  vomiting,  retching,  and  fever. 
After  the  pain  and  swelling  of  the  bitten  member  or  spot  have 
subsided,  the-  vicinity  round  the  wound  becomes  discoloured, 
mortifies,  and  is  finally  thrown  off  as  a  black,  circular  slough, 
after  which  health  is  speedily  restored.  The  bite  of  larger  speci- 
mens, from  two  to  three  feet  long,  is  more  dangerous,  and  has 
occasionally  proved  fatal ;  so  that  the  greatest  care  should  always 
be  observed  in  the  immediate  treatment  of  the  patient.  When 
roused,  these  Snakes  are  extremely  fierce,  striking  at  everything 
within  their  reach  ;  and  Cantor  states  that  in  the  extreme  of  fury 
they  will  fix  their  fangs  in  their  own  bodies.  Frogs,  small  mam- 
malia, and  birds  form  their  food,  and  I  have  never  found  a  Lizard 
or  Snake  in  their  stomach." 

Three  or  more  of  the  species  inhabiting  India  and  Burmah  are 
of  a  beautiful  leaf- green  colour,  which  changes  to  dull  blue  after 
long  immersion  in  spirit.  The  commonest  of  them,  T.  carinatus, 
varies  remarkably  in  colouring,  however,  in  the  Andaman  and 
Nicobar  Islands  ;  if,  indeed,  the  species  be  quite  the  same.  These 
grow  to  over  three  feet  in  length,  of  which  size  they  are  sufficiently 
formidable.  The  kindred  genus,.  Peltopelor,  is  founded  on  a  single 
species  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  Southern  India,  P.  macrolepis, 
which  is  remarkable  for  the-  very  large  scales  with  which  its  head 

G 


82  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

and  body  are  covered.      Lachesis,  with  two  species,  is  another 
kindred  genus  in  South  America,  in  which  the  end  of  the  tail  has 
four  rows  of  scales  underneath.     The  Calloselasma  rkodostoma  is 
a  very  formidable  reptile  of  this  same  series,  which  inhabits  the 
Malay  countries.     It  has  a  remarkably  broad  head,  and  grows  to 
three  feet  or  more  in  length.     Dr.  Giinther  states  that  "  it  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  most  dangerous  of  venemous  Snakes. 
Feeding  on  frogs,    it   frequents   grassy  plains,    and   approaches 
gardens  and  human  dwellings.     Kuhl  was  eye-witness  to  a  case 
where  two  Men,  bitten  by  one  and  the  same  Snake,  expired  five 
minutes  after."  Another  Malayan  species  is  known  as  the  Atropos 
acouba.     The  genus  Halomys  is  characteristic   of  the   fauna   of 
Central  Asia,  the  species  being  found  in  Tartary,  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Himalayas,  in  China,  in  Japan,  and  in  Formosa.     One 
of  them  occurs  in  the  Western  Himalaya,  at  an  altitude  of  9,000 
feet,  and  another  has  been  referred  to  this  genus  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Southern  India.     The  "  carawalla  "  of  Ceylon  (Hypnale 
nepa)  is  likewise  found  on  the  mountains  of  Southern  India.     It 
is  a  small  species,  but  a  good  deal  dreaded,  although,  remarks  Dr. 
Giinther,  "  its  bite  is  but  exceptionally  fatal  to  Man,  and  in  such 
cases  death  does  not  occur  before  the  lapse  of  some  days.     There 
is  always  every  hope  of  restoring  the  patient  by  a  timely  applica- 
tion of  the  proper  remedies."     Its  crown  is  more  shielded  than  is 
usual  with  Snakes  of  this  family,  and  it  varies  much  in  colouring. 
The  rest  of  the  Crotalidw  are  American,   and  consist   of  the 
famous  Rattlesnakes  and  their  immediate   kindred.     In  the  genus 
Cenchris  the  tail  ends  with  a  spine,  and  the  tip  of  the  tail  has 
several  rows  of  scales  beneath.     The  well-known  "  Copperhead  " 
(C.   contortrix)   belongs   to   this  genus,   and    the  black  "Water 
Yiper  "  ( C.  piscworus).  Tlje  last  has  bred  repeatedly  in  the  London 
Zoological  Gardens,  and  is  rather  a  large  species,  of  very  aquatic 
propensities.     "  The   Copperhead,"   according   to   Dekay,    "  is   a 
vicious  reptile,  and  its  'venom  is  justly  dreaded,  being  considered 
as  deadly  as  that  of  the  Rattlesnake  ;  and  an  instance  is  recorded 
in  which  a  Horse,  struck  by  one  of  these  reptiles,  died  in  a  few 
hours.     Its  motions  are  sluggish,  and  when  approached  it  assumes 
a  threatening  aspect,  raising  its  head  and  darting  out  its  tongue. 
It  chiefly  occurs  in  pastures  and  low  meadow  grounds,  feeding  on 


KATTLESNAKES.  83 

Field-mice,  Frogs,  and  the  smaller  disabled  birds."     The  poison 
of  the  black  Water  Viper  is  equally  to  be  dreaded. 

The  true  Rattlesnakes  have  the  tail  furnished  with  the  extraor- 
dinary appendages  at  its  tip  which  will  be  described  presently. 
According  to  differences  in  the  shields  and  scales  covering  the 
head,  Dr.  Gray  arranged  them  into  three  genera — Crotalophorus, 
with  three  species ;  Uropsophus,  with  one ;  and  Crotalus  also 
with  one,  C.  horridus,  which  appears  to  be  the  only  one  known  in 
South  America.  Of  the  common  Northern  Rattlesnake  (Urop- 
sophus durissus),  Dekay  remarks  that,  "although  furnished  with 
such  deadly  weapons,  the  Rattlesnake  can  scarcely  be  termed  a 
vicious  animal,  for  he  rarely  strikes  unless  almost  trodden  upon. 
When  suddenly  disturbed,  he  throws  himself  into  a  coil,  and  warns 
the  aggressor  by  rapidly  vibrating  his  rattles,  which,  however,  can 
scarcely  be  heard  beyond  the  distance  of  a  few  yards.  This  is  most 
usually  the  case,  but  they  occasionally  strike  without  the  slightest 
warning.  At  the  moment  the  Snake  strikes,  he  ejects  the  venom 
forcibly  into  the  wound.  In  an  instance  of  a  very  large  Rattle- 
snake from  Florida  (C.  horridus},  which  was  irritated,  he  struck 
violently  against  the  iron  wire  on  the  side  of  the  cage,  and  spurted 
the  venom  to  the  distance  of  three  feet."  *  The  fibulae,  or  rattles, 
seldom  exceed  fifteen  in  number,  and  are  rarely  so  many.] 

The  common  Northern  Rattlesnake  sometimes  attains  to  six  feet 
in  length,  the  middle  being  about  the  size  of  a  man's  leg ;  the 
colour  of  the  back  is  grey,  mixed  with  yellow.  Upon  this  foun- 
dation extends  a  longitudinal  row  of  black  spots,  bordered  with 
white  ;  towards  the  muzzle  the  flat  head  is  covered  with  six  scales 
larger  than  the  others,  and  disposed  in  three  transverse  rows,  each 
formed  of  two  scales.  The  males  are  smaller,  much  more  brightly 
and  less  darkly  coloured  than  the  other  sex.  The  very  long  and 
visible  fangs  are  situated  in  front  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  scales 
on  the  back  are  oval,  and  raised  in  the  middle  by  a  bone  which 
extends  in  the  direction  of  their  greatest  diameter.  The  underpart 
of  the  body  is  furnished  with  a  single  row  of  large  plates.  The 
Rattlesnake  owes  its  name  to  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  its  struc- 
ture ;  the  extremity  of  the  tail  is  furnished  with  small  horny  cells, 

*  We  have  seen  a  Cobra  thus  spurt  its  venom  against  the  plate-glass  corer  of  the 
box  in  which  it  was  kept. — ED. 

G2 


84 


OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 


articulated  one  into  the  other.  When  the  animal  advances  these 
little  capsules  resound  slightly,  like  the  dry  husks  of  beans  which 
still  retain  their  seeds,  thus  giving  notice  of  the  approach  of  this 
terrible  enemy.  The  sibilant  rattle  of  these  appendages  is  not 
very  loud,  but  it  may  be  heard  about  thirty  paces  off,  aind  announces 
the  approach  of  the  reptile  while  it  is  still  at  that  distance. 


Fig.  20. — Northern  Eattlesnake  ( Uropsophus  durissus). 

Rattlesnakes  feed  on  small  mammals  and  upon  other  reptiles,  wait- 
ing patiently  for  their  approach  ;  when  close  to  them,  the  Rattle- 
snake throws  itself  upon  them.  They  are  oviparous  ;  and  for  some 
time  after  they  are  hatched,  the  young  are  said  to  seek  a  refuge  in 
the  mouth  of  their  mother.  During  summer  Rattlesnakes  remain  in 
the  midst  of  stony  mountains,  uncultivated  places,  or  places  covered 
with  wild  wood ;  they  generally  choose  those  parts  most  exposed 
to  the  heat, — the  sunny  shores  of  a  fountain  or  stream  where  small 
animals  come  to  drink.  They  like  also  to  place  thmeselves  under  the 
shadow  of  an  old  fallen  tree.  Audubon,  the  celebrated  ornitho- 
logist, says  that  he  has  often  met  with  Rattlesnakes  rolled  up  in  a 


FASCINATING  A  SNAKE.  85 

slate  of  torpor  when  the  temperature  was  low.  Rattlesnakes  are 
revered  by  some  of  the  American  natives,  who  know  how  to  lure 
them  from  their  houses  without  killing  them  ;  for  it  is  a  singular 
fact  that  this  terrible  animal  is  not  insensible  to  the  sound  of 
music.  Chateaubriand's  remarks  will  be  read  with  interest :  "  In 
the  month  of  July,  1791,"  says  this  celebrated  writer,  "  we  were 
travelling  in  Upper  Canada  with  some  savage  families  of  the 
Ounoutagnes.  One  day,  when  we  had  stopped  in  a  plain  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Genedie,  a  Rattlesnake  entered  our  camp,  W  e 
had  a  Canadian  amongst  us  who  played  on  the  flute ;  wishing  to 
amuse  us,  he  approached  the  animal  with  this  new  kind  of  weapon. 
At  the  approach  of  his  enemy,  the  splendid  reptile  at  once  coiled 
itself  up  spirally,  flattened  its  head,  puffed  out  its  cheeks,  con- 
tracted its  ears,  and  showed  its  envenomed  fangs,  while  its  forked 
tongue  moved  rapidly,  and  its  eyes  burned  like  red-hot  coals  ;  its 
body  became  inflated  with  rage,  rose  and  fell  like  a  pair  of  bellows  ; 
its  dilated  skin  bristled  with  scales  ;  and  its  tail,  which  produced  a 
sinister  sound,  oscillated  with  lightning  rapidity.  The  Canadian 
now  began  to  play  upon  his  flute.  The  Snake  made  a  movement 
expressive  of  surprise,  gradually  drew  its  head  backwards,  closed 
its  inflamed  mouth,  and,  as  the  musical  sounds  struck  it,  the  eyes 
lost  their  sharpness,  the  vibration  of  its  tail  relaxed,  and  the  noise 
which  it  made  became  weaker,  and  finally  died  away  altogether  ; 
the  coiled-up  line  became  less  perpendicular,  the  orbs  of  the  changed 
Snake  opened,  and  in  their  turn  rested  in  wider  concentric  circles 
on  the  ground.  The  scales  of  the  skin  were  also  lowered,  and 
immediately  recovered  their  wonted  brilliancy,  and,  turning 
its  head  slowly  towards  the  musician,  it  remained  immovable  in  an 
attitude  of  pleased  attention.  At  this  moment  the  Canadian 
walked  away  a  few  steps,  drawing  low  and  monotonous  tones  from 
his  flute  ;  the  reptile  lowered  his  neck,  opened  a  way  among  the 
fine  grass  with  its  head,  and  crawled  in  the  steps  of  the  musician 
who  thus  fascinated  him,  stopping  when  he  stopped  and  following 
him  when  he  began  to  move  away.  The  Snake  was  thus  con- 
ducted from  our  camp  in  the  midst  of  a  throng  of  spectators — as 
many  Red-skins  as  Europeans — who  could  hardly  believe  their 
eyes.'* 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  Rattlesnakes  only  attack  Men  in  self- 


86  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

defence,  but  it  is  at  all  times  a  dangerous  neighbour,  and  it  is  im- 
portant to  know  how  to  keep  them  at  a  distance  in  countries  where 
they  abound.  The  Pig  is  an  excellent  auxiliary  in  obtaining  this 
result.  In  the  west  and  south  of  America,  when  a  field  or  farm  is 
infested  by  these  ferocious  reptiles,  it  is  usual  to  put  a  Sow  with  its 
young  brood  there,  and  the  Snakes,  it  is  said,  will  soon  be  eaten  up. 
It  appears  that  owing  to  the  fatty  matter  which  envelopes  the  body 
of  this  animal,  it  is  safe  from  the  venemous  bite.  Besides,  it 
likes  the  flesh  of  the  Snakes,  and  eagerly  pursues  them.  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Franklin,  when  a  Pig  sees  a  Rattlesnake,  it  smacks  its 
jaws,  and  its  hairs  bristle  up ;  the  Snake  coils  itself  up  to  strike  his 
enemy  ;  the  Pig  approaches  fearlessly,  and  receives  the  blow  in  the 
fold  of  fat  which  hangs  upon  the  side  of  its  jaw.  Then  he  places  a 
foot  on  the  tail  of  the  Snake,  and  with  his  teeth  he  begins  to  pull 
the  flesh  of  his  enemy  to  pieces,  and  eats  it  with  evident  enjoyment.* 
The  Pig  is  not  the  only  animal  employed  to  destroy  Rattle- 
snakes. Dr.  Rufz  de  Lavison,  who  has  long  resided  in  the  French 
Antilles,  and  who  has  since  been  manager  of  the  Jardin  d' Acclima- 
tation,  of  Paris,  has  published  a  highly  interesting  work,  in  which 
he  relates  the  very  important  services  which  certain  birds,  especially 
the  Secretary-bird,  or  Serpent- eater  (imported  from  South  Africa), 
render  by  destroying  Rattlesnakes  in  the  West  Indies.  We 
have  said  that  the  Crotalidce  are  some  of  the  most  dangerous  of 
any  Snakes  ;  let  us  mention  some  facts  which  show  the  frightful 
power  of  their  venom.  A  Crotalus,  about  three  feet  in  length, 
killed  a  Dog  in  about  fifteen  minutes,  a  second  in  two  hours,  and  a 
third  in  about  four  hours.  Four  days  after  he  bit  another  Dog, 
which  only  survived  thirty  seconds  ;  and  another,  which  only 
struggled  four  minutes.  Three  days  afterwards  it  bit  a  Frog, 
which  died  at  the  end  of  two  seconds  ;  and  a  Chicken,  which 
perished  at  the  end  of  eight  minutes. 

An  American,  named  Drake,  arrived  at  Rouen  with  three  live 
Rattlesnakes.  In  spite  of  the  care  which  he  had  taken  to  preserve 
them  from  cold,  one  of  them  died.  He  put  the  cage  which  con- 

*  Dekay,  in  his  "  Natural  History  of  New  York, "remarks  that  it  is  a  popular  belief 
that 'Hogs  are  particularly  destructive  to  Rattlesnakes  ;  but  neither  their  bristly  hide 
nor  their  thick  teguments  afford  them  perfect  immunity  from  the  stroke  of  this 
reptile.  I  was  informed  by  a  respectable  farmer  that  he  lost  three  Hogs  in  one  season 
by  the  poison  either  of  the  Copperhead  or  Rattlesnake. — ED. 


EXPEEIMENTS  WITH  RATTLESNAKES.  87 

tained  the  other  two  near  to  a  stove,  and  excited  them  with  a  small 
stick,  to  assure  himself  that  they  were  alive  and  in  health.  As 
one  of  the  Snakes  made  no  movement,  Drake  took  it  by  the  head 
and  tail  and  approached  a  window  to  see  if  it  was  dead ;  the  animal 
turned  its  head  quickly,  and  bit  the  unfortunate  man  on  the  back 
of  his  left  hand  ;  as  he  replaced  it  in  the  cage  he  was  bitten  anew 
in  the  palm  of  the  same  hand.  "  A  doctor !  a  doctor !  "  cried 
the  unhappy  man.  He  rubbed  his  hand  upon  some  ice  which  was 
close  by,  and  two  minutes  after,  he  bound  the  wrist  tightly  with 
a  cord.  Four  hours  later  a  doctor  arrived,  and  cauterized  the 
wound,  but  alarming  symptoms  soon  appeared.  Syncope,  noisy 
respiration,  scarcely  any  pulsation,  and  involuntary  evacuations 
followed ;  the  eyes  closed,  their  pupils  contracted ;  the  limbs 
became  paralyzed,  and  the  body  cold.  Drake  died  at  the  end  of 
nine  hours. 

Some  experiments  made  by  a  friend  of  Dr.  Bell  seem  to  present 
different  results.  This  gentleman  had  received  a  living  Rattle- 
snake from  America,  intending  to  try  the  successive  effects  of  its 
bite  upon  some  Rats.  He  introduced  one  into  the  cage  with  the 
Snake  :  it  immediately  struck  the  Rat,  and  the  latter  died  in  two 
minutes.  Another  that  was  placed  in  the  cage  ran  to  the 
farthest  corner,  uttering  cries  of  distress.  The  Snake  did  not 
attack  it  immediately  ;  but  after  about  half  an  hour,  on  being 
irritated,  it  struck  the  Rat,  which,  however,  exhibited  no  signs  of 
being  poisoned  for  several  minutes ;  nor  did  it  die  for  about 
twenty  minutes  after  the  bite  had  been  inflicted.  A  third  Rat, 
remarkably  large,  was  then  introduced  into  the  cage,  and 
exhibited  no  signs  of  terror,  nor  did  it  seem  to  be  noticed  by  its 
dangerous  companion  :  after  watching  some  time,  the  gentleman 
retired  to  bed,  leaving  the  Rattlesnake  and  Rat  in  the  cage 
together.  In  the  morning  the  Snake  lay  dead,  and  the  Rat  had 
supped  on  the  muscular  part  of  its  backbone.  Unfortunately, 
Dr.  Bell  does  not  remember  at  what  season  this  experiment  took 
place,  but  thinks  it  was  not  in  very  warm  weather. 

The  climate  of  France  differing  only  slightly  from  that  of  the 
United  States,  it  is  consequently  well  adapted  for  the  production 
of  Rattlesnakes.  If  a  living  male  and  female  of  these  dangerous 
Crotalidce,  were  to  escape  from  a  menagerie,  they  would  soon 


88  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

infest  the  country  with  their  'terrible  progeny.  It  is  for  this 
decisive  reason  that  public  exhibitions  of  Rattlesnakes  are  for- 
bidden in  France.  Nevertheless,  two  or  three  may  be  seen  in  the 
collection  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris,  miserably 
installed  in  a  chest,  which  is  quite  unworthy  of  this  establishment. 
The  Rattlesnakes  are  enclosed  in  a  double  cage,  and  every  measure 
of  precaution  is  taken  which  prudence  demands. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  poison  is  secreted  after  death. 
Dr.  Bell,  in  his  "  Hi-story  of  British  Reptiles/'  adduces  the  follow- 
ing as  evidence  of  the  facts : — He  was  dissecting  very  carefully 
and  minutely  the  poison  apparatus  of  a  large  Rattlesnake, 
which  had  been  dead  some  hours ;  the  head  had  been  taken 
off  immediately  after  death;  yet,  as  Dr.  Bell  continued  his 
dissection,  the  poison  continued  to  be  secreted  so  fast  as  to  require 
to  be  dried  up  occasionally  with  a  sponge  or  rag :  and  his  belief  is, 
that  there  could  not  be  less  than  six  or  eight  drops  of  the  poison. 
It  is  obvious  that  such  experiments  require  the  utmost  caution, 
seeing  that  preparations  are  not  without  danger. 

[The  family  of  the  Viperidce,  or  true  Vipers,  are  peculiar  to  the 
Old  World,  inclusive  of  Australia,  with  the  sole  known  exception 
of  one  species  in  Peru.  They  have  generally  a  robust  bodjr, 
with  non-prehensile  tail ;  the  head  broad  or  thick,  generally 
scaly  above  or  incompletely  shielded ;  the  eye  of  moderate  size, 
with  vertical  pupil,  and  they  are  at  once  distinguished  from  the 
Crotcdidce,  by  the  absence  of  the  pit  below  the  eye.  The  scales 
are  keeled  except  in  one  genus  (Acanthopis).  For  the  most  part, 
these  reptiles  inhabit  exposed  and  arid  situations,  though  perhaps 
all  of  them  will  take  to  the  water  on  occasions,  as  does  the  common 
British  Adder. 

They  are  divided,  firstly,  into  those  which  have  a  depressed 
head,  rounded  on  the  sides,  and  covered  with  acutely-keeled 
scales.  Some  of  these  have  large  nostrils  in  the  centre  of  a  ring- 
like  shield,  edged  with  a  large  scale  above.  Such  are  the  genera 
Daboia  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia,  and  Clotho,  which  is  peculiar 
to  Africa — both  genera  are  terrifically  venemous. 

The  famous  Tic-polonga  of  Ceylon  (Daboia  elegans)  is  also 
widely  diffused  over  India  and  Burmah.  It  is  beautifully  marked 
with  three  rows  of  white-edged,  oblong,  brown  spots.  Occa- 


PUFF-ADDERS. 


89 


sionally  the  spots  forming  the  middle  row  are  connected  like  the 
beads  of  a  necklace,  whence  the  name  Cobra  monil  (literally 
Coluber  moniliger),  applied  to  the  young  of  this  Viper  by  the  Indo- 
Portuguese,  and  now  corrupted  into  "  Cobra  de  Manilla/'  which 
bears  the  reputation  of  being  a  highly  poisonous  Snake  of  diminu- 
tive size ;  it  attains,  however,  to  a  length  of  nearly  five  feet,  the 
tail  then  measuring  about  eight  inches,  with  considerable  thick- 
ness of  body.  It  is  nocturnal,  and  preys  chiefly  on  Mice.  In  Burmah 
this  ^formidable  Yiper  is  dreaded  almost  as  much  as  the  Hama- 
dryas.  It  has  been  obtained  in  the  Himalayas  at  an  elevation  of 
5,500  feet,  at  Almorah,  and  elsewhere.  Mr.  Theobald  has  known 
one  to  kill  a  Bull-terrier  in  twenty  minutes.  The  D.  xanthina  is 
a  second  species  of  this  form  inhabiting  Asia  Minor. 

The  genus  Clotho  consists  of  the  terrible  Puff-adders  of  Africa, 
of  which  there  are  at  least  four  or  five  species.  Among  the  best 
known  of  them  are  the  ordinary  Puff-adder  (C.  arietans),  and  the 
Berg-adder  (C. 
atropos),  of  the 
Cape  colonists. 
The  Rhinoceros 
Puff-adder,  C.  na- 
sicornis,  of  Guinea, 
has  the  scales  over 
the  nostrils  of  the 
male  produced  into 
a  long  recurved 
spine  ;  and  in  the 
Horned  Puff-ad- 
der, C.  cornuta,  of 
South  Africa, there 
*  is  a  group  of  small 
horn  -  like  scales 
over  each  eye. 
Examples  of  the 

Common  and  of  the  Rhinoceros  Puff-adders  may  generally  be 
seen  in  the  reptile  house  of  the  London  Zoological  Gardens.  The 
last  mentioned  is  a  huge  Yiper  of  wondrous  beauty,  both  of 
colouring  and  in  the  complex  pattern  of  its  markings,  especially 


Fig.  21.— The  Horned  Puff-adder  (Clotho  cornuta). 


90 


OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 


as  seen  when  it  has  newly  shed  its  epidermis ;  but  the  aspect  of  its 
surprisingly  broad,  flat,  and  triangular- shaped  head  unmistakably 
betokens  its  terrific  powers.  Its  head  is  remarkably  massive.  One 
peculiarity  of  the  Puff-adders  is  that  they  sometimes  hold  on  to 
their  victim  by  their  long  fangs.  Thus,  of  the  common  C.  arietans 
Sir  A.  Smith  remarks  that  "  although  generally  inactive,  it  is  by 
no  means  so  when  attacked — its  movements  are  then  bold  and 
energetic,  and  when  once  it  seizes  the  obnoxious  object,  it  retains 
its  hold  with  great  determination,  and  some  considerable  exertion 
is  often  necessary  to  detach  it."  *  The  traveller  Burchell  remarks 
of  this  Snake  that  "  its  venom  is  said  to  be  most  fatal,  taking 

effect  so  rapidly  as 
to  leave  the  person 
who  has  the  mis- 
fortune to  be  bit!  en 
no  chance  of  savi  n :» 
his  life,  but  by  in- 
stantly cutting  out 
the  flesh  surround- 
ing the  wound. 
Although  I  have 
often  met  with  this 

Fig.  22.— The  Unadorned  Puff-adder  (Clothoinornata).  Snake,"     he      adds, 

"  yet,  happily,  no  opportunity  occurred  of  witnessing  the  effects 
of  its  poison  ;  but,  from  the  universal  dread  in  which  it  is  held, 
I  have  no  doubt  of  its  being  one  of  the  most  venemous  species  of 
Southern  Africa.  There  is  a  peculiarity  which  renders  it  more 
dangerous,  and  which  ought  to  be  known  to  every  person  liable 
to  fall  in  with  it.  Unlike  the  generality  of  Snakes,  which  make  a 
spring  or  dart  forward  when  irritated,  the  Puff-adder,  it  is 
said,  throws  itself  backwards,  so  that  those  who  should  be 
ignorant  of  this  fact  would  place  themselves  in  the  very  direction 
of  death,  while  imagining  that  by  so  doing  they  were  escaping 
the  danger.  The  natives,  by  keeping  always  in  front,  are  en- 

*  In  Chapman's  "Travels  in  the  Interior  of  South  Africa"  (vol.  ii.  p.  59),  we 
read — "  May  19th.  I  lost  my  "best  Dog,  Caesar.  He  had  seized  a  large  Puff-adder  "by 
the  tail,  and  shook  it.  When  the  Snake  was  released  it  darted  at  the  Dog's  face,  and 
having  fixed  its  fangs  in  its  cheek,  stuck  there  like  a  Bull-dog  until  it  was  killed. 
The  Dog  only  survived  ten  minutes." — ED. 


CERASTES  AND  ECHIS.  91 

abled  to  destroy  it  without  much  risk.  The  Snakes  of  South 
Africa,  as  of  Europe,  lie  concealed  in  their  holes  in  a  torpid  state 
during  the  colder  part  of  the  year.  It  is,  therefore,  only  in  the 
hottest  summer  months  that  the  traveller  is  exposed  to  the  danger 
of  being  bitten."  Dr.  Gray  refers  doubtfully  to  this  genus  both 
the  Echidna  inornata  of  Sir  A.  Smith,  and  the  E.  mauritanica  of 
Dumeril  and  Bibron,  from  Algeria ;  likewise  a  Peruvian  species 
named  Echidna  ocellata  by  Tschudi,  which  is  the  only  known 
instance  of  a  member  of  this  family  inhabiting  the  New  World. 
The  appellation  Echidna,  however,  belongs  properly  to  the  Porcu- 
pine Ant-eaters  of  the  class  Mammalia. 

The  species  of  Cerastes  and  of  Echis  have  the  nostrils  much 
smaller  than  the  preceding,  and  are  Yipers  of  less  formidable  size. 
In  the  two  species  of  Cerastes,  or  Horned  Yiper,  the  eyebrows  of 
the  male  bear  commonly  a  sort  of  horn.  C.  Hasselquistii  is  com- 
mon in  Egypt,  and  the  other,  C.  Richii,  inhabits  Tripoli.  Of 
Echis  there  is  one  species  in  Egypt  and  North  Africa — E.  arenicola, 
and  another  in  India — E.  carinata.  The  latter  grows  to  about 
twenty  inches  long,  of  which  the  tail  measures  two  inches  and  a 
third.  These  Yipers  commonly  lie  half-buried  in  the  sand,  which 
they  much  resemble  in  colour.  They  feed  upon  Centipedes 
(Scolopendra) ,  and  no  case  is  known  of  their  bite  having  proved 
fatal. 

The  remaining  Viperidce  have  the  head  more  or  less  shielded. 
They  are  divided  by  Dr.  Gray  into  Vipera  (with  two  European 
species,  not  found  in  Britain — F.  aspis  from  the  Alps,  and  F. 
ammodytes  from  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean) ; — 
Pelias,  which  contains  only  the  Common  British  Adder,  P.  berus  ; 
Sepedon,  with  one  species  only,  from  South  Africa,  S.  h&machates  ; 
Causus,  with  also  only  one  African  species,  C.  rhombeatus  ; 
and  finally,  Acanthopis,  founded  on  the  Death-adder  of  the  Aus- 
tralian colonists,  A.  antarctica,  which  is  the  only  member  of  the 
family  Viperidce  known  to  inhabit  Australia,  where  the  Poisonous 
Colubrine  Snakes  are  so  numerous.  It  is  also  the  only  known 
species  the  scales  of  which  are  smooth  or  not  keeled.  It  seldom 
exceeds  thirty  inches  in  length,  and  varies  a  good  deal  in  colour. 
Like  other  Viperidce  it  is  sluggish  in  its  movements,  but  when 
irritated  it  flattens  itself  out  generally  in  the  form  of  the  letter  S, 


92 


OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 


turning  round  to  one  side  or  the  other  with  astonishing  rapidity, 
but  never  jumping  at  its  enemy  or  throwing  itself  backward,  as 
the  Puff-adders  are  described  to  do.  The  Death-adder  is  found 
in  almost  every  part  of  Australia  northward  of  the  thirty-sixth 
parallel  of  south  latitude.] 

The  Common  Adder  (Pelias  berus),  is  not  improbably  the  E^is 
of  Aristotle,  and  the  Viper  a  of  Yirgil,  as  it  is  the  Manasso  of  the 
Italians,  the  Adder  of  the  country-people  in  England  and  Scotland, 
and  the  Yipere  of  France.  It  is  found  in  all  these  countries,  and 
in  Europe  generally. 

The  Common  Adder  varies  in  length,  from  thirteen  or  fourteen 


Fig.  23.— The  Common  Adder  (Pelias  berus). 

inches  to  double  that  length ;  and  from  two  to  three  or  even  four 
inches  in  girth. 

Its  general  colour  varies  considerably  :  in  some  it  is  olive,  in 
others  reddish^brown,  varying  sometimes  to  an  ashy- grey ;  at 
other  times  it  is  greyish-black.  A  waving  brown  or  blackish  line 
runs  along  the  back.  A  row  of  unequal  spots  of  the  same  colour 
is  observable  on  the  flanks  ;  the  belly  is  slate-coloured  ;  the  head 
nearly  triangular,  a  little  larger  than  the  neck,  obtuse  and  trun- 
cated in  front,  and  covered  with  granulated  scales.  Six  small 
plates  cover  the  muzzle,  two  -of  which  are  perforated  for  the 
nostrils,  which  are  lateral,  forming  a  blackish  spot.  Above  is  a 
sort  of  Y  sha<pe,  formed  by  two  black  bands.  The  upper  jaw  is  a 


WEAPONS  OF  THE  VIPER.  93 

white  ground,  spotted  with  black  ;  the  lower  jaw  is  yellow.  The 
eyes  are  small  and  sharp,  edged  with  black.  The  tongue  is  long, 
grey,  and  forked. 

Adders  are  met  with  in  the  wooded,  stony,  and  mountainous 
regions  of  southern  and  temperate  Europe  —  in  France,  Italy, 
England,  Germany,  Prussia,  Sweden,  Poland,  and  even  Norway. 
They  are  met  with  in  the  heaths  near  London  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Paris  ;  they  are  met  with  at  Montmorency,  and  in 
the  forest  of  Fontainebleau,  They  feed  upon  Lizards,  Frogs,  mol- 
lusks,  worms,  insects,  and  small  mammalia,  such  as  Field-mice, 
Shrews,  and  Moles.  They  pass  the  winter  and  early  spring  in 
a  state  of  torpor  in  deep  hollows,  where  they  are  sheltered  from  the 
cold.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  several  Adders  coiled  up  together 
in  one  heap,  entwined  and  intimately  interlaced  together. 

The  movement  of  Adders  is  abrupt,  slow,  and  irregular.  They 
appear  to  be  shy  and  timid  creatures,  shunning  the  day,  and  only 
seeking  their  food  in  the  evening.  The  young  come  into  the  world 
naked  and  living  :  so  long  as  they  are  maintained  within  the 
mother,  they  are  enclosed  in  eggs  with  membranous  shells. 
Soon  after  their  birth  the  young  Vipers,  whose  length  does  not 
exceed  six  or  seven  inches,  are  abandoned  by  the  mother,  and  left 
to  shift  for  themselves.  They  do  not,  however,  acquire  their  full 
development  till  they  are  six  or  seven  years  old.  Adders  are  justly 
considered  objects  of  fear  and  horror  both  to  Men  and  to  other 
animals.  They  carry  with  them  a  formidable  apparatus,  of  which 
it  is  important  that  both  the  structure  and  the  mode  of  action 
should  be  known.  This  venemous  apparatus  is  composed  of  three 
parts — the  secreting  glandsy  the  canal,  and  the  hooked  fangs. 

The  gland  is  the  organ  which  secretes  the  venom ;  it  is 
situated  upon  the  sides  of  the  head,  behind  and  a  little  beneath  the 
globe  of  the  eye ;  it  is  formed  of  a  number  of  inflated  bladders, 
composed  of  a  granulous  tissue,  and  disposed  with  great  regularity 
along  the  excretory  canal,  not  unlike  the  barbs  of  a  pen-feather. 
This  arrangement,  however,  is  only  visible  through  a  micro- 
scope. The  tube  destined  to  conduct  the  secreted  venom  through 
the  gland  is  straight  and  cylindrical ;  after  being  filled,  in  its 
short  journey  it  ends  in  two  peculiar  hook-like  teeth,  called 
fangs,  tapering  to  a  point,  and  in  shape  horn-like.  They 


94  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

are  much  longer  than  the  others,  and  placed  one  to  the  right, 
the  other  to  the  left  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  Adder,  then,  is  fur- 
nished with  two  of  these 
poison-fangs ;  they  are 
curved  and  sharp- 
pointed,  convex  ante- 
riorly,  and  furnished 
with  a  straight  duct 
which  commences  in 
one  part  by  a  slit  placed 

Fig.  24.-Fangs  and  Tongue  of  a  Poisonous  Colubrine  Snake.       ^    ^  anterior  part  Qf 

its  base,  terminating  by  a  second  and  smaller  cleft  towards  its 
point,  and  on  the  same  side.  This  last  cleft  is  like  a  little  trench 
or  fine  furrow,  which  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  convexity. 
These  hooked  teeth  are  surrounded  by  a  fold  of  the  gums,  which 
receives  and  partly  hides  them,  like  a  sheath,  when  they  are  at 
rest  or  hidden.  They  are  attached  to  the  upper  maxillary  bones, 
which  are  small  and  very  mobile,  and  are  put  in  motion  by 
two  muscles.  Behind  them  are  dental  germs,  intended  to  replace 
them  when  they  fall  out.  The  other  teeth  in  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  belong  to  the  palate,  where  they  form  two  rows. 

Such  are  the  terrible  weapons  of  the  Yiper  group.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  as  many  persons  still  believe,  with  the  tongue  that  the 
Adder  inflicts  its  wound  ;  the  forked,  projecting  tongue  serves  them 
as  a  feeler,  and  to  drink  with,  but  cannot  inflict  a  wound.  We 
have  said  that  when  in  a  state  of  repose  the  hooked  teeth  are 
hidden  ;  when  the  animal  wishes  to  use  them,  they  issue  from 
their  fleshy  sheath,  somewhat  in  the  same  manner  as  a  man 
draws  his  knife,  when  attacked,  to  defend  himself,  and  in  this  case 
the  knife  is  poisoned. 

Adders  use  their  fangs  to  seize  the  small  animals  which  serve 
as  their  prey.  They  do  not  voluntarily  attack  a  Man ;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  flee  at  his  approach.  But  if  he  imprudently  places 
his  foot  on  or  attempts  to  seize  them,  they  defend  themselves 
vigorously.  Let  us  see  how  an  Adder  conducts  itself  when  it 
hunts  its  prey  and  takes  it.  In  this  case  it  may  be  supposed  to 
act  without  passion,  merely  seizing  its  prey  for  food  ;  it  simply 
bites,  sinking  its  fangs  into  the  body  of  its  victim.  In  pro- 


REMEDIES  FOE  VIPER  WOUNDS.  95 

portion  as  the  fangs  penetrate  the  body  of  the  animal  the  poison 
flows  into  the  canal,  which  again  conducts  it  to  the  fangs  under 
the  influence  of  the  contracting  muscles,  by  which  they  are 
raised  and  made  to  press  upon  the  gland;  but  this  movement 
causes  the  Adder  to  close  its  mouth,  and  the  venom  is  injected 
into  the  wound. 

Adders  bite  in  much  the  same  manner  when  seized  by  the  tail 
or  middle  of  the  body  ;  but  when  they  think  themselves  attacked 
and  become  irritated,  they  strike  rather  than  bite.  At  first  they 
coil  themselves  up  into  several  superposed  circles,  then  they 
will  uncoil  themselves  to  their  whole  length  with  excessive 
quickness,  extending  their  bodies  like  a  spring,  drawing  it  out 
with  the  rapidity  of  lightning,  and  gliding  over  a  space  equal 
to  their  own  length ;  for  they  never  leave  the  ground.  They 
will  now  open  their  jaws  wide,  erect  their  fangs,  and  strike, 
first  throwing  back  their  heads,  by  which  means  they  contrive  to 
strike  as  with  a  hammer. 

Dr.  Bell  expresses  doubts,  in  his  "  History  of  British  Reptiles," 
of  the  existence  of  any  well- authenticated  case  in  this  country  of 
an  Adder  bite  terminating  fatally.*  At  the  same  time  he  cau- 
tions all  persons  against  exposure  to  them  in  the  heat  of  summer 
and  autumn,  when  the  poison  is  most  virulent.  The  remedy 
applied  to  such  a  bite  is  to  rub  the  part  with  olive  oil,  over  a 
chafing  dish  of  coals,  and  to  take  a  strong  dose  of  ammonia  (spirit 
of  hartshorn)  internally. 

Open  copses,  dry  heaths,  new  woodland  clearings,  and  sandy 
wastes  are  the  usual  haunts  of  the  Adder ;  and  in  such  places 
its  hibernaculum  is  usually  found  in  winter,  where  several  of 
the  same  species  lie  intertwined  in  a  torpid  state. 

It  was  long  supposed  that  Adders,  and  Snakes  generally, 
exercise  a  sort  of  magnetic  action  from  a  distance — a  power  which 
has  been  called,  fascination.  This  impression  has  been  denied, 
and  attributed,  not  without  reason,  to  a  less  mysterious  cause; 
namely,  the  sentiment  of  profound  terror  which  these  creatures 
inspire.  This  terror  manifests  itself  in  animals  by  tremblings, 
spasms,  and  convulsions.  The  sight  of  a  venemous  Snake  some- 
times renders  its  victims  immovable,  incapable  of  flight,  and  as  it 
*  A.  few  cases  have  been  known. — ED. 


96  ^  OPHIDIAN  EEPTILES. 

were  paralyzed,  and  they  allow  themselves  to  be  seized  without 
opposing  the  slightest  resistance.  Others  give  themselves  over 
to  confused  movements,  which,  far  from  saving  them,  only  make 
their  capture  easier.  M.  Dumeril,  while  pursuing  experiments  in 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  demonstrative  of  the  sudden  and 
mortal  action  of  the  bite  of  a  Yiper  on  little  birds,  saw  a  Gold- 
finch, which  he  held  in  his  hands,  die  suddenly,  merely  at  the 
sight  of  the  Viper. 

In  warm  countries,  wounds  produced  by  the  larger  species  of 
these  terrible  reptiles  are  extremely  dangerous — they  swell,  become 
red  and  ecchymose,  and  sometimes  livid ;  the  wounded  person  is 
seized  with,  syncope,  fever,  and  a  series  of  morbid  symptoms,  which 
often  terminate  in  death.  The  remedy  is  to  bind  immediately  a 
ligature  above  the  wound  with  a  band,  such  as  a  rolled  hand- 
kerchief, a  cord,  or  a  string,  so  as  to  stop  all  communication  of 
the  blood  with  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  thus  prevent  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  venom  into  the  system  till  more  effectual  means  can 
be  adopted.  It  is  well  to  suck  the  wound  and  make  it  bleed ;  it 
is  necessary  also  to  make  an  incision,  so  as  to  expose  the  internal 
parts,  and  then  to  cauterize  the  wound  immediately,  either  with 
a  red-hot  iron  or  by  means  of  a  caustic  agent.  For  this  purpose 
the  following  composition  may  be  employed : — 

Perchloride  of  iron. 60  grains. 

Citric  acid 60       „ 

Hydrochloric  acid 60       ,, 

Water 144       „ 

A  few  drops  of  this  is  poured  on  the  wounded  part,  which 
is  then  covered  with  a  small  piece  of  lint.  Iodine  or  iodinet  of 
potassium  can  also  be  employed.  M.  Yiand-Marais  has  sub- 
stituted the  following  composition  for  this  compound  with  great 

success  : — 

Water   .    • 50  grains. 

Iodinet  of  Potassium 50       ,, 

Metallic  iodine 50       „ 

To  facilitate  the  introduction  of  caustic  into  the  wound,  the 
same  naturalist  has  invented  a  little  bottle  closed  with  emery;  the 
stopper,  which  is  long,  and  conical  at  the  lower  end,  plunges 


VENOM  OF  SNAKES.  97 

into  the  liquid.  By  means  of  this  stopper  the  medicated  sub- 
stance can  be  made  to  penetrate  by  drops  as  far  as  the  bottom 
of  the  wound,  which  has  been  previously  enlarged  by  the  bistoury. 
This  little  apparatus  will  replace  with  advantage  the  bottle  of 
volatile  alkali  with  which  Viper-hunters  are  usually  furnished. 
But  all  these  means  are  only  useful  when  applied  immediately. 
The  limbs  and  round  about  the  wound  must  besides  be  rubbed  with 
ammoniacal  liniments.  Afterwards  emollient  poultices  should  be 
used  to  lower  the  swelling  and  reduce  the  chances  of  congestion; 
while  tonics,  sudorifics,  and  sometimes  ammoniacal  potions  should 
be  given  internally. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  this  venom,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
virulent  poisons  known,  can  yet  be  swallowed  with  impunity.  It 
is  neither  acrid  nor  burning,  and  only  produces  a  sensation  on 
the  tongue  analogous  to  that  caused  by  greasy  matter.  But  if 
introduced  into  a  wound  in  sufficient  quantities,  it  enters  into  the 
blood,  and  causes  death  with  frightful  rapidity.  This  is  a  charac- 
teristic common  to  all  morbid  and  venemous  virus. 

The  strength  of  the  venom  varies  according  to  the  species 
of  Snake,  and  likewise  the  condition  of  the  animal.  The  same 
species  is  more  dangerous  in  hot  than  in  cold  or  temperate  regions. 
The  bite  is  serious,  according  as  the  poison  is  more  or  less  abun- 
dant in  the  glands,  and  probably  with  the  degree  of  rage  expe- 
rienced by  the  animal,  as  Professor  Owen  supposes. 

[Of  Snakes  in  general  it  has  been  remarked  that  "  all  strangers 
in  countries  where  these  reptiles  abound  are  apt  to  exaggerate 
their  danger ;  but  in  a  year  or  two  they  think  as  little  of  them 
as  we  do  in  England.  I  never  knew^  an  instance  of  a  Snake 
attacking  a  person  unless  it  was  trodden  upon  or  molested,  and 
even  then  they  almost  always  give  warning  by  hissing,  or  endea- 
vour to  effect  their  escape.  During  my  residence  in  the  Cape 
colony,  I  have  at  different  times  trodden  on  them  or  kicked  them 
in  the  grass  unintentionally,  but  was  never  bitten."  *  This 
writer,  however,  could  hardly  have  accidentally  placed  his  foot 
upon  a  Puff-adder,  f] 

*  Hoodie's  "Ten  Years  in  South  Africa,"  vol.  i.  p.  318. 

f  Subsequent  experiments  with,  the  virus  of  the  Indian  Cobra  have  conclusively 
proved  that  ammonia  is  not  a  sufficient  antidote,  as  alleged  in  p.  95. — ED. 

H 


CHAPTEE  III. 

THE  ORDER  OF  LIZARDS. — SAURIANS. 

'Tins  is  the  second  order  of  the  great  section  of  Scaly  Reptiles 
(Squamatd),  as  distinguished  from  the  Shielded  Reptiles  (Cata- 
phracta).  The  name  Saurian,  Saypos,  given  by  Aristotle  to  the  genus 
of  Lizards,  has  been  more  comprehensively  applied  to  a  group 
of  Reptiles  which  have  the  body  elongated,  covered  with  scales,  or 
having  the  skin  rough  like  shagreen.  They  have,  for  the  most 
part,  four  feet,  the  toes  of  which  are  furnished  with  hooked  claws ; 
their  eyelids  are  movable,  and  their  jaws  armed  with  encased 
teeth  ;  they  have  a  distinct  tympanum,  a  heart  with  two  auricles 
and  a  single  ventricle,  sometimes  partially  valved,  having  sides  and 
a  sternum.  They  are  not  subject  to  metamorphosis,  and,  finally, 
they  are  furnished  with  a  tail. 

["By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  Saurians,"  writes  Dr. 
Giinther,  "  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  orders  of 
reptiles  by  their  elongated  form,  by  their  movable  thorax  covered 
with  skin,  by  the  presence  of  legs,  and  by  their  general  integu- 
ments, which  are  either  folded  into  scales,  or  granular,  or 
tubercular,  or  shielded ;  still,  there  are  many  Saurians  which,  at 
a  superficial  glance,  might  easily  be  taken  for  members  of  the 
preceding  order — that  of  the  Snakes;  and  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  there  is  a  gradual  transition  from  one  of  these  orders  to  the 
other.  On  the  part  of  the  Saurians,  we  allude  to  those  which 
have  no  externally  visible  limbs,  and  which  combine  with  a 
greatly  elongate,  cylindrical  body,  the  peculiar  kind  of  locomo- 
tion we  observe  in  Snakes.  Yet  the  greater  affinity  of  these 
reptiles  to  the  ordinarj^  Lizards  is  indicated  by  another  character, 
which  is  in  intimate  connection  with  their  mode  of  life.  The 


SAUEIANS.  99 

Snakes,  having  movable  maxillary  bones,  and  mandibles  not  joined 
by  a  symphidis,  are  enabled  to  swallow  other  animals  of  appa- 
rently greater  bulk  than  their  own.  In  the  Saurians  the  maxillae 
are  fixed  and  immovable,  and  the  mandibles  are  joined  by  an 
osseous  suture,  so  that  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  can  be  dilated  only 
in  the  usual  vertical  direction.  Moreover,  in  these  limbless 
Saurians  we  always  find  bones  of  the  shoulder  hidden  below  the 
skin,  whilst  no  trace  of  them  can  be  discovered  in  the  true  Snakes. 
The  motions  of  some  Lizards  are  extremely  slow,  while  those  of 
others  are  executed  with  very  great,  but  not  lasting,  rapidity. 
Many  of  them  have  the  power  of  changing  their  colours,  which 
depends  on  the  presence  of  several  layers  of  cells  loaded  with 
different  pigments ;  these  layers  the  animal  compresses  by  more 
or  less  inflating  its  lungs,  whereby  the  changes  in  the  coloration 
are  effected/' 

Dr.  Giinther  does  not  follow  Dr.  Gray  in  arranging  all 
true  reptiles  into  the  two  grand  divisions  of  Shielded  Reptiles 
( Cataphractd)  and  Scaly  Reptiles  (Squamata),  but  he  includes  the 
Crocodilidce  among  the  Saurians  as  a  first  grand  division  of  them 
— Emydosauri,  and  the  other  Lizards  constitute  his  second  grand 
division  of  them — Lacertini.  These  latter  are  again  primarily 
divisible  according  to  the  structure  of  the  tongue.  Thus,  in  the 
series  of  Leptoglossa,  the  tongue  is  elongate,  forked,  and  exser- 
tile,  much  as  in  the  Ophidians  ;  in  that  of  Pachyglossd  the  tongue 
is  short,  thick,  attached  to  the  gullet,  and  is  not  exsertile  ;  and  in 
the  Vermilingues  it  is  Worm-like,  club-shaped  in  front,  and  very 
exsertile. 

The  various  genera  of  Saurians  which  have  either  not  a  trace  of 
external  limbs,  or  have  them  more  or  less  diminutive  and  rudi- 
mentary— either  the  usual  two  pairs  or  one  pair  only,  and  in  the 
latter  case  sometimes  the  fore  and  sometimes  the  hind  pair  being 
deficient — are  included  among  the  Leptoglossa,  or  the  series  which 
have  a  forked  and  protrusile  tongue  ;  and,  so  far  as  is  practicable, 
we  will  commence  by  noticing  the  different  serpentiform  genera ; 
only,  in  a  classification  which  is  not  confessedly  superficial,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  various  Snake-like  Saurians  appertain  to 
several  distinct  natural  families,  most  of  the  other  genera  belong- 
ing to  which  have,  in  sundry  cases,  limbs  that  are  well  developed. 

H2 


100  SAUBIANS. 

Some  of  them,  therefore,  will  have  to  be  noticed  as  the  different 
families  to  which  they  belong  are  successively  treated  of;  and 
there  will  yet  remain  the  curious  serpentiform  family  of  Am- 
phisbcenidce,  which  Dr.  Gray  refers  to  his  grand  series  of  Shielded 
Reptiles  (Cataphracta). 

The  same  naturalist  divides  the  Leptoglossa  into  two  tribes, 
which  he  styles  Geissosaura  and  Cyclosaura ;  and,  as  constitut- 
ing particular  division  of  the  former,  he  includes  under  it  the 
family  Typhlopida,  which  Dr.  Gimther  refers — as  we  have  seen — 
to  the  order  of  Ophidians.  In  the  series  of  Geissosaura,  the  scales 
of  the  belly  and  (almost  always)  of  the  back  and  sides  are 
quincuncial,  rounded,  and  imbricate ;  the  tongue  is  narrow,  short, 
flat,  and  but  slightly  forked ;  and  the  head  is  of  a  conical  shape, 
and  is  covered  with  regular  shields. 

Of  the  families  thus  characterised,  some  only  have  distinct 
eyelids,  as  the  families  Acontiadce,  Ophiomorida,  Sepsidfe,  and 
Sdncidce ;  while  others  have  the  eyelids  rudimentary  and  the 
eyes  exposed,  as  the  families  Lialisidte,  Afirasiadce,  Pygopodidce, 
and  GymnoptlmlmidcB.  In  the  Acontiadce  the  nostrils  are  placed 
in  the  enlarged  rostral  plate,  with  a  longitudinal  slit  behind.  The 
form  of  the  body  much  resembles  that  of  our  common  Orvet,  or 
Blind-worm,  and  their  limbs,  when  present,  are  so  rudimentary 
that  they  can  aid  little  in  locomotion.  One  genus,  Acontias,  is 
without  limbs,  and  the  eyes  are  furnished  with  a  lower  lid,  while 
the  upper  eyelid  is  rudimentary.  Of  this,  one  species,  A.  meleagris, 
inhabits  South  Africa;  and  another,  A.  Layardii,  has  been  dis- 
covered in  Ceylon.  The  genus  Nessia  has  four  rudimentary 
limbs,  and  the  rostral  shield  is  large,  sub-conical,  and  depressed. 
In  one  species,  N.  monodactyla,  the  limbs  are  diminutive,  the  pos- 
terior placed  far  apart  from  the  anterior,  all  being  very  short, 
weak,  and  undivided  into  toes.  In  another,  N.  Burtoni,  each 
foot  is  divided  into  three  minute  toes.  Both  species  are  peculiar 
(so  far  as  known)  to  Ceylon,  and  the  habits  of  this  family  are 
much  the  same  as  those  of  our  common  Orvet  (Anguis  fragilis) . 

The  family  of  Ophiomoridce  is  founded  on  a  single  genus  and 
species,  Ophiomorus  miliaris,  which  inhabits  North  Africa.  As 
remarked  by  Dr.  Gray,  this  reptile  seems  to  be  intermediate  to  the 
Acontiadce  and  the  Stincida,  and  makes  it  appear  as  if  the  large 


SEPSID^E.  101 

rostral  shield  of  the  former  was  formed  of  the  united  rostral, 
supra-nasal,  and  nasal  shields  of  the  present  family,  and  of  the 
Scincidce.  It  has  an  elongate,  cylindrical  body,  without  external 
limbs,  and  the  ears  are  hidden  under  the  skin  ;  the  eyes  are  dis- 
tinct, with  valvular  eyelid ;  and  the  scales  of  the  body  and  some- 
what elongate  tail  are  hexagonal. 

The  Sepsidce  differ  from  the  preceding,  and  also  from  the  great 
family  of  the  Scincidce,  by  having  the  nostrils  placed  in  the  front 
edge  of  a  small  shield,  in  a  notch  at  the  hinder  side  of  the  rostral 
plate,  which  latter  is  rather  large  and  square.  The  eyes  are  dis- 
tinct, the  lower  eyelid  scaly,  or  with  a  transparent  disk.  Body 
fusiform  or  sub -cylindrical,  elongate.  These  reptiles  burrow  in  dry 
sand,  and  are  peculiar  to  the  anciently-knowncontinents  and  certain 
islands.  Some  have  a  wedge-shaped  head,  with  prominent  rostral 
plate.  Of  these  the  genus  Sphenops  has  more  developed  limbs, 
each  dividing  into  four  toes ;  and  the  only  species,  S.  sepsoides, 
inhabits  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  North  Africa.  Spkenocepkalus 
has  a  more  slender  and  elongate  shape,  and  the  limbs  are  placed 
more  distantly  apart ;  the  anterior  minute,  and  fitting  into  a 
groove,  the  posterior  as  large  as  in  Sphenops,  and  each  of  them 
having  but  three  toes,  of  which  the  innermost  and  next  are  sub- 
equal,  and  the  outer  much  shorter.  The  only  known  species, 
S.  triclactylus,  is  common  in  Afghanistan.  In  Scelotes  the  ante- 
rior limbs  disappear  altogether ;  and  the  only  known  species, 
S.  bipes,  inhabits  South  Africa.  Other  genera  have  a  pyramidal 
head,  with  the  rostral  plate  erect,  and  rounded  in  front.  Such  are 
the  five  following,  each  founded  on  a  single  species : —  Gongylus 
ocellatuSy  from  North  Africa  and  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean ; 
Thyrus  Bojeri,  from  the  Mauritius ;  Amphiglossus  astrolabi,  from 
Madagascar;  Seps  tridactylus,  from  the  south  of  Europe  and 
north  of  Africa ;  and  Heteromeles  mauritanicus,  from  North 
Africa.  The  last  has  only  two  toes  to  the  fore-feet,  three  to  the 
hind  ;  and  Seps  has  three  toes  to  each  foot,  while  the  other  three 
genera  have  five  to  each  foot.  In  general  these  animals  are  found 
in  dry  and  elevated  spots,  where  they  hide  themselves  in  the  sand 
or  under  stones. 

The  Scincid(B  have  the  head  covered  with  shields,  which  are 
symmetrically  arranged.     Tongue  slender,  free,  extersile,  termi- 


102 


SAUBIANS. 


nating  in  two  pointed  lobes.  Scales  on  the  back  rounded,  quin- 
cuncial,  imbricate  ;  those  on  the  belly  similar  to  those  on  the 
back  and  on  the  sides.  No  fold  across  the  throat  or  along  the 
side  ;  no  femoral  or  inguinal  pores.  Tail  generally  long,  rounded, 
fragile.  Eyes  and  eyelids  well  developed.  Nostrils  in  a  separate 
plate,  between  the  frontal  and  labial  shields.  Generally  four 
limbs,  moderately  developed,  sometimes  feeble  or  hidden  below 
the  skin.  The  species  of  this  family  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and 
inhabit  almost  every  part  of  the  tropical  regions,  some  extending 


Fig.  25. — Seps  tridactylus. 

into  the  temperate  zones.  They  are  thoroughly  land  Lizards, 
preferring  dry  ground,  and  hiding  themselves  in  the  sand,  under 
stones,  fallen  leaves,  &c.,  very  few  of  them  entering  the  water.  They 
do  not  attain  to  any  considerable  size,  only  a  few  species  of 
Australia  and  the  West  Indies  growing  to  the  thickness  of  a 
man's  wrist,  and  exceeding  a  foot  in  length.  Some  of  them  are 
viviparous,  others  deposit  from  eight  to  twelve  globular  eggs. 
Dr.  Gray  divides  them  into  the  sub-families  of  Sdncina,  or  those 
which  have  the  scales  thin,  smooth,  and  neither  striated  nor 
keeled ;  the  nostrils  in  a  single  smooth  plate,  without  any  lunate 
groove  behind ;  and  the  tail  round,  tapering,  unarmed ;  and 
Tropidophorina,  or  those  which  have  the  scales  thick,  bony, 
rugous,  striated,  and  with  one  or  more  keels  upon  each  of  them ; 


BLIND-WORM.  103 

the  rostral  plate  rounded  in  front,  and  the  body  fusiform,  with 
well- developed  limbs,  which  terminate  always  in  the  full  comple- 
ment of  toes.  A  few  species  of  the  Scindnce  have  no  external 
limbs,  thus  approximating  in  their  appearance  to  certain  of  the 
burrowing  Ophidians.] 

The  Orvet,  or  Blind- worm,  Anguis  fmgilis,  is  small,  cylindrical 
in  shape,  about  eleven  or  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  having  the 
exterior  appearance  of  Snakes.  The  scales  which  cover  the  body 
are  small,  smooth  and  shining,  being  red  in  the  middle,  and 
edged  with  white,  of  a  silvery  yellow  on  the  upper  part,  and 
dusky  beneath ;  the  sides  somewhat  dusky  brown,  and  the  throat 
slightly  marbled  with  white,  black,  and  yellow.  Two  larger  spots 


Fig.  26. — Orvet,  or  Blind- worm  (Anguisfragilis). 

appear,  one  above  the  muzzle,  the  other  upon  the  back  of  the 
head ;  from  this  point  two  blackish  longitudinal  rays  start,  which 
extend  to  the  tail,  as  well  as  two  other  nut-brown  rays,  which 
start  from  the  eyes;  the  markings  vary,  however,  in  different 
countries,  and  probably  with  age  and  sex. 

The  Orvet  is  found  in  woods  and  dry,  sandy,  and  stony 
wastes.  They  are  timid,  harmless  creatures,  retiring  into  holes 
and  concealing  themselves  in  moss  at  the  foot  of  trees  to  hide 
themselves  from  observation.  They  feed  upon  worms,  insects, 
and  the  smaller  mollusks.  Although  perfectly  harmless,  the 


104  SAUEIANS. 

country-people  are  strongly  prejudiced  against  them,  believing 
their  bite  to  be  a  deadly  poison.  This  animal  is  extremely  brittle. 
Laurenti  and  others  assert  that  when  captured  it  throws  itself  into 
a  position  of  such  rigidity  that  it  sometimes  breaks  in  two,  and 
that  a  smart  blow  of  a  switch  will  at  any  time  divide  it. 

[There  are  little-known  species  of  Anguis  in  India  and  South 
Africa,  which  are  at  least  provisionally  so  considered,  and  certainly 
do  not  differ  essentially ;  and  next  we  come  to  forms  in  which  the 
limbs  are  successively  more  developed.  Such  are  the  Ophiodes 
striatus  of  Brazil,  which  has  two  short,  flattened,  .undivided,  and 
one-pointed  limbs,  corresponding  to  the  usual  hind  pair;  the 
Brachymeles  bonitee  of  the  Philippines,  in  which  there  are  two 
pairs  of  short  and  rudimentary  limbs,  the  fore  bearing  two  minute 
claws,  while  the  hind  are  undivided ;  Venira  bicolor,  of  the  same 
archipelago,  has  very  short  limbs,  the  fore  and  hind  being  placed 
distantly  apart,  but  in  this  genus  all  have  five  distinct  toes  ; 
Chiamelea  lineata,  from  some  part  of  India,  and  Hagria  Vosmaerii, 
from  Bengal,  are  kindred  forms  which  conduct  to  the  genus 
Ewneces,  the  species  of  which  are  very  numerous,  and  spread  over 
nearly  all  the  different  countries  between  or  near  the  tropics,  and 
in  certain  of  them  (as  the  Burmese  E.  anguinus)  the  limbs  are  still 
remarkably  diminutive,  and  (as  in  E,  isodactylus  of  Cambodia)  the 
fore  and  hind  limbs  are  placed  very  far  apart,  the  body  and  tail 
being  long  and  anguiform.  In  various  other  species  of  Eumeces, 
however,  the  proportions  are  more  those  of  an  ordinary  Scink,  as 
again  in  the  kindred  genera  Mabonia  and  Plestiodon,  which  are 
widely  distributed. 

In  other  series  of  Scinks,  the  distinctions  of  which  are  far  from 
being  conspicuous,  we  again  have  limbless  genera,  or  nearly  so, 
as  the  Australian  Soridia  lineata,  which  has  one  pair  of  small, 
posterior,  undivided  extremities ;  while  in  another  Australian  form, 
the  Rhodona  punctata,  the  anterior  pair  of  limbs  are  simple  and 
undivided,  while  the  hinder  divide  into  two  unequal  toes,  and  the 
two  pairs  of  limbs  are  situate  as  distantly  apart.  And  thus  we 
may  continue  to  trace  the  successive  gradations,  in  sundry  genera, 
until  we  arrive  at  the  Scinais  qffidnalis  of  North  Africa,  a  well- 
known  reptile,  the  geographical  range  of  which  extends  eastward 
into  Afghanistan,  and  which  was  formerly  in  considerable  request 


SCINKS.  105 

for  its  supposed  medicinal  properties.  Indeed,  this  notion  still 
prevails  in  Hindustan,  into  which  country  dried  specimens  of  both 
this  reptile  and  of  Sphenocephalus  tridactylus  (p.  101)  are  brought 
by  Afghan  traders,  and  are  sold  in  the  bazars.  Both  of  these  are 
Sand  Lizards,  which  burrow  into  the  sand  with  great  rapidity. 

We  now  come  to  the  Tropidophorince,  or  second  sub-family  of 
Scinks  indicated  by  Dr.  Gray  (vide}).  102),  which  have  always  well- 
developed  limbs,  the  body  only  moderately  elongated,  and  the 
scales  variously  keeled.  Several  species  of  larger  size  appertain  to 
this  series,  as  the  Cyclodus  gigas  of  Australia,  and  the  curious 
Stump- tail  Lizards,  Trachydosaurus  rugosus  and  T.  asper,  of  the 
same  insular  continent,  which  latter  have  most  prominently  rugous 
scales,  and  the  tail  literally  appearing  like  the  short  and  abrupt  stump 
of  one.  Egernia  Cunninghami  and  Tropidolesma  (of  different  species) 
are  other  comparatively  large  Australian  Lizards  ;  and  examples  of 
most  of  those  that  have  been  mentioned  may  generally  be  seen 
alive  in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens,  where  the  Cyclodus  gigas 
has  bred  and  proves  to  be  viviparous.  Of  the  species  of  Euprepes, 
of  which  several  inhabit  the  Indian  region,  some  (as  the  very 
common  E.  rufescens)  are  viviparous,  and  others  (as  E.  multica- 
rinata)  are  oviparous.  These  have  three  more  distinct,  though  not 
prominent,  keels  upon  each  scale  ;  and  the  different  species  inhabit 
both  the  Old  World  and  the  New,  as  well  as  Australia.  The 
Galliwasps  ( Celestus)  of  the  West  Indies,  and  sundry  other  genera, 
do  not  greatly  differ.  Of  Tropidophorus,  which  has  exceedingly 
rugged  scales,  the  species  inhabit  the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  and 
one  ( T.  codnsinensis)  is  found  likewise  in  the  Philippines ;  while  of 
another  (T.  Berdmarei),  in  Burmah,  Mr.  Theobald  remarks  that 
"  its  scales  are  dull  and  lustreless,  and  the  coloration  peculiar  for  a 
Scink.  It  harbours  under  half-immersed  stones,  and  enters  the 
water  and  gravel  freely."  In  several  of  this  family  of  Lizards 
the  scales  are  beautifully  iridescent,  and  many  of  them  show 
longitudinal  pale  or  white  lines,  or  are  otherwise  variegated. 

Nearly  akin  to  the  extensive  family  of  Scincidcey  there  are  three 
small  families  (as  classed  by  Dr.  Gray),  the  species  of  which 
are  peculiar  to  Australia.  They  have  small,  undivided,  posterior 
limbs  only,  or  are  quite  limbless.  These  families  are  the  Lialisidto, 
founded  on  three  or  more  species  of  a  single  genus,  Lialis ;  the 


106  SAUKIANS. 

Aprasiada,  founded  upon  one  species  only — Aprasia  pulckella, 
which  is  limbless ;  and  the  Pygopodidte,  comprising  the  two 
genera  Pygopus  and  Delma,  the  former  containing  two,  the  latter 
only  one  ascertained  species,  The  GyiHnoptkalmidce  constitute  still 
another  small  family,  quadrupedal,  but  with  the  limbs  small  and 
weak.  Of  seven  genera  referred  to  it,  five  are  Australian,  one  is 
European,  and  one  belongs  to  South  America.  Ablepharus  panno- 
nicus  is  a  small  Lizard  of  this  family,  inhabiting  Eastern  Europe, 
with  a  congener,  A.  bivittatus,  in  the  Caucasus ;  and  Gymno- 
pthalmus  lineatus  inhabits  Brazil  and  the  Island  of  Martinique. 

In  the  second  tribe  of  Leptoglossa,  entitled  Cyclosaura,  the 
scales  of  the  belly  are  square,  in  cross  bands  ;  those  of  the  back 
and  tail  are  rhombic  and  imbricate,  or  circular  and  subgranular  ; 
the  tongue  is  lengthened,  and  more  or  less  conspicuously  furcate  ; 
and  the  eyes  are  diurnal,  having  two  valvular  lids.  The  limbs  are 
generally  well  developed ;  but  in  several  genera  they  still  are  more 
or  less  rudimentary,  or  even  absent. 

There  are  four  small  families  in  which  the  sides  are  rounded  and 
covered  with  scales  like  the  back.  Of  these,  that  of  Cham&sauridce, 
is  founded  upon  the  South  African  Lacerta  anguina  of  Linnaeus,  now 
Chamaesaura  anguina)  which  has  the  limbs  quite  rudimentary.  In 
the  American  families  of  Cercosauridae,  Ckirocolidae,  and  Anadiadae, 
the  limbs  are  moderately  developed,  and  have  each  five  toes.  The 
two  last-mentioned  families  are  founded  each  upon  a  single  species, 
Chirocolus  imbricatus  and  Anadia  ocellata  ;  and  the  other  contains 
the  two  genera  Circosaura  and  Lepisoma — of  which  the  first  com- 
prises some  two  or  three  species  only.  All  of  these  reptiles  have 
exceedingly  long  tails,  though  not  so  inordinately  long  as  in  the 
Lacertidfe  of  the  genus  Tacky dromus. 

Certain  other  families  have  a  distinct  longitudinal  fold,  covered 
with  small  granular  scales  on  each  side.  These  are  the  families 
Chalddae,  Holaspidce,  and  the  more  extensive  one  of  Zonuridte. 
The  Chalcida  have  the  head  covered  with  regular  many-sided 
shields,  and  the  lateral  fold  is  indistinct ;  limbs  small  and  rudi- 
mentary, and  the  hind  feet  are  undivided  in  the  genera  Chalcis  and 
Bachia,  with  three  tubercles  in  place  of  toes  in  Microdacfylus,  and 
with  four  clawed  toes  in  Brachypus.  Each  of  these  genera  is 
founded  on  a  single  species,  and  all  are  doubtless  peculiar  to  the 


107 

New  World.  The  .Holaspidce  is  also  founded  on  one  species  only, 
the  Holaspis  Gucntheri,  which  again  is  supposed  to  be  South 
American.  It  has  four  well- developed  limbs,  a  double  row  of 
plates  along  the  back  and  upper  surface  of  the  tail,  and  the  latter 
organ  is  curiously  serrated  laterally. 

The  Zonuridtf  constitute  a  considerable  family,  to  which  some 
eighteen  or  twenty  genera  are  assigned,  and  which  present  con- 
siderable modification  of  form.  The  ears  are  distinct,  whereas  in 
the  Ckalcidae  they  are  hidden  under  the  skin.  The  head  is 
pyramidal,  or  depressed,  and  covered  with  regular  many-sided 
shields ;  eyes  with  two  valvular  lids.  Limbs  mostly  well  developed, 
but  short  in  some,  and  rudimentary,  or  even  wanting  in  the  so- 
called  "  Glass-snakes  "  which  constitute  the  sub-family  Pseuda- 
podince.  There  is  no  external  trace  of  them  in  the  North  American 
Glass-snake,  Ophisaurus  ventralis  ;  and  in  the  Old  World  genus, 
Pseudopus,  there  is  only  one  pair,  posterior,  rudimentary,  and 
undivided.  These  reptiles  are  long,  and  serpentiform  in  shape  : 
whilst  in  other  Saurians  the  whole  skin  of  the  belly  and  of  the 
sides  is  extensible,  the  extensibility  is  limited  in  the  "  Glass- 
snakes  "  to  a  separate  part  of  the  skin  ;  and,  as  Dr.  Giinther 
remarks,  "  the  scaly  covering  of  the  upper  and  lower  parts  is  so 
tight  that  it  does  not  admit  of  the  same  extension  as  in  Snakes 
and  other  Lizards  ;  and  the  Pseudopus,  therefore,  could  not  receive 
the  same  quantity  of  food  in  its  stomach  as  those  animals,  were 
it  not  for  the  expansible  fold  of  the  skin  running  along  each  side 
of  its  trunk."  One  species  of  Pseudopus,  the  P.  Pallasii,  inhabits 
Asia  Minor  and  the  south-east  of  Europe ;  and  there  is  another, 
P.  gracilis,  in  the  Indo-Chinese  countries  (or  those  lying  eastward 
of  the  Bay  of  Bengal).  A  second  sub-family,  Gerrhonotinte,  is 
peculiar  to  America,  and  consists  of  more  ordinarily-shaped  Lizards, 
which  are  ranged  in  four  genera.  Together  with  the  Ophisaurus, 
or  American  Glass-snake,  they  are  the  only  known  Zonuridce  that 
inhabit  the  New  World.  The  great  mass  of  this  family  and  all  of 
its  most  characteristic  species  are  African,  and  these  are  arranged 
by  Dr.  Gray  under  the  sub-families  Cicignince  and  Zonurince.  In 
the  first  of  these  sub-families  the  tail  is  smooth,  or  unarmed,  and 
in  the  second  it  is  spinous.  The  Cordules,  Cordylus,  Zonurus,  &c., 
are  very  characteristic  Lizards  chiefly  of  Southern  Africa,  several 


108  SAUEIANS. 

species  of  which  have  been  figured  by  Sir  Andrew  Smith.  They 
are  mostly  of  shortish  form,  and  the  neck  is  more  or  less  spinous ; 
the  body-scales  in  some  (as  Zonurus  cataphractus)  being  extra- 
ordinarily rugous.  These  Lizards  squeeze  themselves  into  crevices 
in  the  rocks,  in  which  they  hold  on  so  firmly  by  their  nuchal 
spines  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  dislodge  them,  the  tail  com- 
monly giving  way  at  once  if  it  be  attempted  to  pull  them  forth  by 
means  of  it. 

The  family  of  Lacertida,  comprising  our  ordinary  European 
Lizards,  have  no  longitudinal  fold  along  the  sides,  but  generally 
one  across  the  throat;  the  tail  is  very  long,  rounded,  with  its 
scales  arranged  in  rings,  being  also  fragile  ;  the  head  is  covered 
with  shields,  which  are  symmetrically  arranged ;  scales  on  the 
back  granular  or  rhombic  ;  on  the  sides  granular ;  on  the  belly 
largely  quadrangular  or  rounded,  and  arranged  in  cross-bands  ; 
eyes  diurnal,  with  eyelids ;  the  tympanum  distinct ;  limbs  always 
four,  and  well  developed.  This  group  of  Lizards  has  no  repre- 
sentative in  America  or  (so  far  as  known)  in  Australia. 

The  sub-family  of  Tachydromince  is  included  by  Dr.  Gray  in  the 
family  Zonuridce.  These  are  Asiatic  Lizards,  with  a  most  in- 
ordinate length  of  tail,  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  being  not  placed 
distantly  apart,  as  in  the  various  anguiform  Lizards  already 
treated  of — there  is  an  indistinct  collar,  and  the  toes  are  not  ser- 
rated or  keeled.  Two  genera  have  been  distinguished,  Tachy- 
dromus  and  Tachysaurus,  the  latter  founded  on  a  Japanese  Lizard, 
T.japonicus.  At  least  three  species  are  known  of  Tacky dromus, 
two  of  which  inhabit  China,  T.  septentrionalis  and  T.  meridionalis ; 
the  third  belonging  to  the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  T.  sex-lineatus. 
In  an  example  of  the  last,  measuring  fourteen  inches  long,  the 
tail  occupies  eleven  inches  and  a  half.  It  is  the  longest-tailed 
creature  that  we  have  any  knowledge  of,  in  proportion  to  its 
other  parts ;  indeed,  something  quite  wonderful  to  behold  and  muse 
over. 

The  rest  of  the  Lacertidae  are  chiefly  from  Africa  and  the  south 
of  Europe ;  there  are  probably  more  of  them  to  be  discovered  in 
Middle  Asia,  and  only  three  or  four  species  are  known  to  inhabit 
the  Indian  region.  Fifteen  ,or  more  genera  are  recognised.  In 
temperate  Europe  (inclusive  of  the  British  Islands)  two  species 


GREY  LIZARD.  109 

are  common — the  Zoolica  vivipara  and  the  Lacerta  agilis.  The 
former,  as  its  name  imports,  is  viviparous,  whereas  the  other 
genera  belonging  to  the  family  are  (so  far  as  known)  oviparous. 
Others  occur  in  the  south  of  Europe.] 

The  common  Grey  or  Sand  Lizard  (L.  agilis],  sometimes  attains 
the  length  of  from  eight  to  ten  inches,  of  which  the  tail  occupies  more 
than  half.  These  little  inoffensive  creatures,  so  common  in  Southern 
Europe,  are  slender  and  active  ;  their  movements  are  so  rapid  that 
they  escape  the  eye  as  quickly  as  a  bird.  They  require  a  mild  tem- 
perature, and  seek  shelter  among  ruins.  When  the  sun  strikes 
with  its  meridian  force  upon  a  wall,  they  may  be  seen  basking  in 
its  rays,  enjoying  themselves  delightedly  upon  the  heated  surface. 
They  seem  to  be  pervaded  with  the  blessed  warmth,  and  mark 
their  pleasure  by  soft  undulations  of  the  tail.  It  is  commonly 
said  that  the  Lizard  is  the  friend  of  Man,  since  far  from  flying  at 
his  approach,  they  seem  to  regard  his  appearance  with  great 
complacency.  They  pass  the  winter  at  the  bottom  of  small  holes 
which  they  have  hollowed  out  of  the  earth,  where  they  become 
torpid.  At  the  commencement  of  spring  they  issue  from  their 
hiding-place,  and  each  seeks  its  mate  ;  they  go  in  pairs,  male 
and  female,  it  is  said,  living  in  faithful  union  for  many  years, 
sharing  between  them  the  domestic  arrangements,  which  com- 
prise hatching  the  young  and  nursing  them  in  their  helplessness, 
carrying  them  into  warm  and  sunny  places,  and  sheltering  them 
from  cold  and  damp. 

Lizards  feed  chiefly  upon  insects,  and  especially  flies.  All  who 
have  watched  the  actions  of  the  Grey  Lizards  must  have  observed 
that  the  caudal  vertebrae  are  so  extremely  fragile  that  they  separate 
on  the  slightest  touch,  the  tail  remaining  in  the  hand  of  any 
one  attempting  to  seize  it.  These  tails  sometimes  grow  again. 
When  an  attempt  is  made  to  seize  a  Grey  Lizard  on  the  wall 
ifc  lets  itself  fall  to  the  ground,  and  remains  there  a  moment 
immovable  before  attempting  to  run,  evidently  simulating  death. 

Grey  Lizards  are  easily  tamed,  and  appear  happy  in  captivity. 
From  their  extreme  gentleness  they  soon  become  familiar  with 
their  keepers,  and  return  caress  for  caress,  approaching  mouth  to 
mouth,  and  suck  the  saliva  from  between  their  lips  with  a  grace 
that  few  people  would  allow  them  to  display. 


110 


SAUPJANS. 


In  the  Green  Lizard,  L.  viridis,  the  scales  of  the  temple  are  many- 
sided  and  unequal,  with  a  central  layer;  back  granular  and  oblong, 
with  shelving  sides;  throat  fold  distinct.  Nothing  can  be  more 
brilliant  than  the  variegated  colouring  with  which  it  is  ornamented. 
Its  favourite  locality  is  a  slightly  elevated  woody  place,  where  the 
sun's  rays  readily  penetrate.  It  is  also  found  in  sunny  meadows. 
It  feeds  upon  small  insects,  and  shows  no  alarm  at  the  presence  of 
Man,  but  stops  to  look  at  him.  Snakes,  on  the  contrary,  they 


Fig.  27-— Green  Lizard  and  Ocellated  Lizard. 

seem  to  fear  much,  but  when  they  cannot  avoid  them  they  fight 
courageously.  In  length  they  are  about  eighteen  inches. 

Green  Lizards  are  found  in  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  and  other  warm 
countries  of  Europe,  on  the  African  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  they  are  not  rare  in  France. 

How  often  have  we  admired  their  magnificent  colours  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Montpelier,  where  they  rival  the  green  of  the 
meadows,  and  glitter  in  the  sun  like  so  many  living  emeralds ! 

In  the  Ocellated  Lizard,  L.  ocellata,  the  upper  part  of  the  body 


TEID2E.  Ill 

is  green,  variegated,  spotted,  and  reticulated  or  ocellated  with  black, 
having  large  round  blue  spots  upon  the  flanks  ;  the  under- part  of  the 
body  is  white,  frosted  with  green;  in  size  it  is  about  twenty  inches. 
They  are  found  at  Fontainebleau,  in  the  south  of  France,  and  in 
Spain.  They  establish  themselves  in  hard  sand,  often  between  two 
beds  of  calcareous  rock,  upon  some  steep  declivity,  more  or  less 
directly  exposed  to  the  south ;  they  are  also  found  between  the 
roots  of  old  stems,  either  in  hedgerows  or  vineyards.  They  feed 
almost  exclusively  on  insects ;  but  are  said,  to  attack  Mice, 
Shrews,  Frogs,  and  even  Snakes,  and  to  destroy  the  eggs  of  the 
Partridge.  They  have  sometimes  been  tamed  by  feeding  them 
on  milk. 

[In  the  genus  Ophiops,  two  species  of  which  inhabit  Asia  Minor, 
and  one  of  them  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  eyelid  is 
rudimentary  and  the  eye  exposed,  whence  the  name,  signifying 
"  snake  eye/'  So  far  as  known,  the  habits  of  the  various  Lizards 
which  constitute  the  family  of  Lacertidce  are  much  the  same. 

The  family  of  Teida  is  peculiar  to  the  New  World,  and  some 
of  the  species  attain  to  the  length  of  several  feet.  In  these  Lizards 
the  head  is  pyramidal,  and  is  covered  with  regular  many-sided 
shields  ;  supra- orbital  plate  horny ;  the  teeth  solid  and  well 
rooted;  tongue  elongate,  flat,  free  (rarely  slightly  sheathed  at 
its  base)  ;  the  scales  of  the  back  are  regular  and  keeled,  and  of  a 
rhombic  shape  ;  sides  flat,  and  covered  with  small  granular  scales  ; 
the  throat  scaly,  with  a  double  collar,  rarely  indistinct. 

In  some  the  throat  has  two  cross- folds,  with  large  six-sided 
scales  within  ;  and  of  these  some  have  the  ventral  shields  small, 
long,  and  smooth,  while  others  have  them  much  broader.  The 
former  are  known  as  the  Teguexins  (Teius  and  Callopistes) ,  and 
the  latter  as  the  Ameivas  (Ameiva,  and  three  other  genera).  One 
species  of  Teguexin,  Teius  teguexin,  may  commonly  be  seen  alive 
in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens.  This  is  a  large  and  powerful 
Lizard,  exceeding  five  feet  in  length  when  full  grown,  and  ex- 
tremely active.  It  feeds  on  small  living  animals  of  any  kind,  and 
will  even  devour  poultry,  and  especially  their  eggs,  for  which 
latter  it  manifests  an  especial  liking,  as  observed  in  captivity. 
Sometimes  it  has  been  known  to  prey  on  other  and  kindred 
Lizards,  as  the  Ameivas.  The  teeth  of  this  species  are  strong, 


112  SAURIANS. 

and  the  reptile  can  bite  with  great  force.  It  is  a  bold  and 
determined  combatant  when  attacked,  and  if  it  succeeds  in  seizing 
its  foe,  retains  its  hold  with  pertinacity.  Its  flesh  is  eaten  by 
some  people,  who  consider  it  excellent.  Together  with  a  second 
species,  T.  nigropunctatus,  it  inhabits  Brazil,  and  the  two  species  of 
Callopistes  are  also  South  American,  one  at  least  of  them  occur- 
ring in  Chili.  The  species  of  this  family,  although  strong  and 
agile,  never  ascend  trees,  but  range  at  will  the  hot  sandy  plains 
or  the  dense  and  damp  underwood  on  the  margins  of  lakes  and 
rivers,  into  which  they  plunge  when  alarmed,  and  remain  below 
the  surface  until  the  danger  has  passed  away,  their  capacious 
lungs  and  imperfect  circulation  permitting  them  to  endure  a 
very  long  immersion  without  inconvenience. 

The  Ameivas  have  a  long  whip-like  tail,  and  peculiarly 
elongated  toes  on  their  hind  feet.  The  species  of  Ameiva  and 
Cnemidopkorus  are  numerous,  and  the  genera  Dicrodon  and 
Acrantus  are  founded  each  of  them  upon  a  single  species.  In 
general  these  are  Lizards  which  correspond  with  the  ordinary 
Lacertidae  of  the  Old  World.  One  species  only,  Cnemidophorus 
sex-lineatus,  inhabits  the  Southern  States  of  North  America  ;  there 
are  at  least  four  others  in  Mexico,  and  the  rest  belong  to  South 
America  and  the  Antilles.  " The  Ameiva  dorsalis"  writes  Mr. 
Gosse,  '•'  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  the  reptiles  of  Jamaica,  and 
is  as  beautiful  as  abundant.  Its  colours  are  striking,  but  not 
showy,  and  its  countenance  has  a  very  meek  expression.  All  its 
motions  are  elegant  and  sprightly ;  when  it  is  proceeding  de- 
liberately, its  body  is  thrown  into  latent  curves  the  most  graceful 
imaginable ;  but  when  alarmed  its  swiftness  is  so  excessive  that  it 
appears  as  if  it  literally  flew  over  the  ground,  and  the  observer  can 
scarcely  persuade  himself  that  it  is  not  a  bird.  It  is  very  timid, 
and  though  its  toes  are  not  formed  as  in  the  Geckos  and  Anoles, 
for  holding  on  against  gravity,  I  have  seen  a  large  Ameiva  run 
with  facility  on  the  side  of  a  dry  wall,  along  the  perpendicular 
surfaces  of  the  large  stones." 

A  second  series  occurs  in  those  Teidce  which  have  a  collar  of 
large  shields  on  the  throat.  As  many  as  five  genera  of  them  have 
been  established,  each  upon  a  single  species,  and  all  are  from 
intertropical  America.  In  Crocodilurus  lacertinus  the  two  rows 


VAEANIDJB.  113 

of  crests  along  the  tail  recall  to  mind  the  Crocodiles,  whence  the 
name  bestowed.  Others  have  been  styled  Dragons,  as  the  Great 
Dragon,  Ada  guianensis,  and  the  Smaller  Dragon,  Custa  bicarinata. 
All  bear  a  certain  amount  of  superficial  resemblance  to  the  Croco- 
diles, and  the  Great  Dragon  grows  to  six  feet  in  length,  and  is 
found  in  many  parts  of  South  America.  This  large  reptile  runs  up 
the  trunks  of  trees  with  facility,  is  quick  when  on  the  ground,  and 
it  also  swims,  though  not  particularly  well.  It  preys  upon  such 
small  animals  as  it  can  manage  to  seize,  and  chiefly  frequents  the 
inundated  savannahs  and  marshy  localities,  where  it  is  seen  bask- 
ing in  the  sunshine  ;  but  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  taking 
this  Lizard,  as  it  makes  generally  for  its  burrow  in  some  raised 
spot,  and  bites  desperately  in  self-defence.  Its  flesh  is  eaten,  and 
is  considered  a  delicacy.  Its  eggs,  also,  are  considerably  esteemed 
at  Cayenne  and  other  places,  and  each  female  lays  some  dozens  of 
them. 

The  family  of  Helodermidce  is  founded  on  a  very  remarkable 
Lizard  from  Mexico,  the  H.  horridum,  which  is  of  the  same  size  as 
the  Great  Dragon,  and  in  some  respects  approximates  the  following 
Old  World  family  of  Vamnidce.  Its  back  and  sides  are  covered 
with  oblong,  hexagonal,  very  convex  and  shield-like  scales,  and 
the  belly  with  oblong,  rather  convex  plates ;  tail  cylindrical, 
with  oblong,  convex  scales  above,  and  flat,  elongate,  thin  plates  be- 
neath. The  head  is  somewhat  flattened,  and  is  covered  with  poly- 
gonal, convex  shields ;  the  muzzle  is  rounded ;  and  the  teeth  are 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  jaws,  incurved,  with  a  groove  on  the  front 
of  their  inner  side.  The  bite  of  this  reptile  is  said  to  be  severe. 

The  family  of  Varanidce  inhabit  South-eastern  Asia  and  its 
islands,  Africa,  and  Australia.  In  this  family  are  comprised  the 
largest  of  existing  Lizards,  with  the  exception  of  the  CrocodilidcR. 
They  are  very  commonly  miscalled  Iguanas  by  Europeans  and 
their  descendants,  in  the  countries  where  they  are  found.  These 
reptiles  have  a  pyramid- shaped  head,  more  or  less  elongated,  and 
covered  with  small  and  scale-like,  but  not  imbricate,  shields.  Their 
teeth  are  acute  and  compressed.  The  tongue  is  elongate,  slender, 
terminating  in  a  long  fork,  and  is  retractile  into  a  sheath  at  its 
base.  Their  scales  are  small,  equal  on  the  sides  and  on  the  back, 
and  arranged  in  cross  rings ;  those  on  the  belly  and  tail  are 

I 


114  SAUEIANS. 

square,  in  cross  bands.  Tail  long,  and  generally  more  or  less 
compressed.  The  feet  are  well  developed,  with  five  toes  on  each, 
which  are  armed  with  strong  claws.  Most  of  them  live  near 
water,  and  they  are  excellent  swimmers,  their  long  and  com- 
pressed tail  serving  as  a  propeller.  Their  movements  on  land 
are  not  much  less  rapid  than  in  the  water.  Several  of  the  species 
climb  trees,  and  they  are  more  or  less  nocturnal  in  their  time  of 
action,  though  also  about  by  day.  They  are  exclusively  carni- 
vorous, feeding  on  the  different  water  animals,  and  on  the  eggs 
of  birds,  and  likewise  on  those  of  other  large  reptiles;  some  of 
them  are  also  destructive  to  ducklings,  and  to  various  Snakes. 
Dr.  Giinther  remarks  that  "  their  external  nasal  opening  leads 
into  a  spacious  cavity  situated  in  the  snout ;  when  the  animal 
dives,  it  closes  the  nasal  aperture,  and  retaining  a  certain  quantity 
of  air  in  that  pouch,  or  rather  in  the  two  pouches,  it  is  enabled 
to  remain  under  water  for  a  prolonged  period  without  the  neces- 
sity of  rising  to  the  surface  in  order  to  breathe.  It  is  the  same 
plan  of  structure  as  that  with  which  a  large  northern  Seal 
(Cystophora  borealis)  is  provided."  In  like  manner,  the  air-bag 
connected  with  the  one  developed  lung  of  the  Ophidians  retains 
the  necessary  supply  of  air  during  the  tedious  process  of  degluti- 
tion or  swallowing.  The  nostrils  are  variously  placed,  either  mid- 
way between  the  eye  and  muzzle,  or  nearer  to  one  or  to  the  other ; 
and  according  to  this  and  some  other  differences,  Dr.  Gray  divides 
the  Varanidae  into  as  many  as  seven  genera,  but  Dr.  Giinther  would 
seem  to  admit  not  more  than  two  genera.  When  the  tail  of  these 
Lizards  is  mutilated,  the  lost  portion  is  never  renewed ;  whereas 
in  the  preceding  families  of  the  Zonuridae,  Lacertidce,  and  Teida 
a  new  tail  or  portion  of  one  soon  sprouts  forth — but  this  renewed 
portion  contains  no  bony  vertebrae,  and  it  remains  smooth  exter- 
nally ;  when  the  fracture  is  cleft,  as  sometimes  happens,  two 
new  tails  -are  put  forth.  Another  family  of  Lizards  in  which  the 
tail  is  thus  commonly  renewed  is  that  of  the  Geckos ;  but  never 
in  the  Iguanidce,  the  Agamidce,  and  the  Ckameleonidce,  any  more 
than  in  the  Varanidw.  The  species  of  this  family  defend  them- 
selves vigorously,  when  attacked,  by  lashing  forth  smart  blows 
with  the  tail,  as  do  also  the  Crocodiles  and  the  larger  Iguanidce. 
In  the  genus  Varanus,  the  nasal  apertures  form  an  oblique 


115 

slit,  in,  or  nearly  in,  the  middle,  between  the  eye  and  the  tip  of  the 
snout.     The  scales  are  elliptic  and  small ;  those  on  the  back  and 
on  the  sides  are  not  imbricate,  each  of  them  being  surrounded  by  a 
small,  circular,  granular  fold.  Tail  with  a  low  crest,  formed  by  two 
or  four  series  of  strongly  keeled  scales.     Throat  with  a  transverse 
fold.     One  very  common  in  India  and  Ceylon  is  the  V.  draccena, 
which  grows  to  a  length  of  five  feet,  the  tail  being  longer  than  the 
body.    These  reptiles  live  in  holes,  and  in  midday  they  steal  out  of 
their  cells  to  seek  their  food,  which  consists  chiefly  of  the  smaller 
reptiles  and  of  insects.    In  many  parts  of  India,  and  in  Ceylon,  the 
flesh  is  much  eaten  by  the  natives.     The  late  Dr.  Kelaart  states 
that  he  once  tried  some  excellent  soup  made  from  it,  which  tasted 
not  unlike  hare-soup.    At  Trincomali,  he  tells  us,  they  are  hunted 
down  by  Dogs,  and  sold  in  the  market  for  sixpence  each.     This 
species  climbs  walls,  and  holds  on  so  firmly  with  its  strong  claws, 
wherever  these  can  be  inserted,  that  it  is  actually  used  by  house- 
breakers  in  India  to  help  in  raising   themselves   up  a  wall  or 
building,  the  man  grasping  the  tail,  while  the  reptile  affords  a  lift 
by  endeavouring  to  escape  from  him  upwards.     It  lays  twenty  or 
thirty  eggs,  which  in  texture  and  appearance  resemble  those  of  many 
Snakes,  being  similarly  agglutinated  together  by  a  viscid  mucus. 
Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  remarks  that  "  one  of  the  earliest,  if  not  the 
first,  remarkable  animal  to  startle  a  stranger  on  arriving  in  Ceylon, 
whilst  wending  his  way  from  Point  de  Galle  to  Colombo,  is  this 
large  Lizard,  which  may  be  seen  at  noonday  searching  for  Ants 
and  other  insects  in  the  midst  of  the  highway  and  along  the 
fences.     When   disturbed,   but   by   no   means    alarmed,   by   the 
approach  of  Man,  it  moves  off  to  a  safe  distance  ;  and  the  intrusion 
being  at  an  end,  it  returns  again  to  the  occupation  in  which  it  had 
been  interrupted.     It  lives  in  any  convenient  hollow,  such  as  a 
hole  in  the  ground,  or  the  deserted  nests  of  the  Termites ;  and 
some  small  ones,  which  frequented  my  garden  at  Colombo,  made 
their  retreat  in  the  heart  of  a  decayed  tree." 

Of  another  species,  V.flavescens,  which  inhabits  Lower  Bengal, 
and  to  the  eastward  in  Burmah,  &c.,  Mr.  Theobald  remarks  that 
"  large  specimens  are  not  often  procurable  by  Europeans,  as  they 
are  much  sought  after  by  both  Burmese  and  Karens  as  choice 
articles  of  food.  They  are  chiefly  hunted  with  Dogs,  whose  scent 


116  SAUEIANS. 

enables  them  to  discover  the  Yarans  in  the  hollow  trees  in  which 
they  habitually  shelter  themselves.  A  Burman,  though  ordinarily 
a  lazy  man,  will  think  nothing  of  cutting  down  and  breaking  up  a 
large  tree  in  which  one  of  these  creatures  has  sought  refuge.  The 
Varanidce  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  ground,  usually  selecting  a 
deserted  White-ant's  nest.  The  eggs  are  cylindrical,  with  taper- 
ing ends,  of  a  dirty  white  colour  and  leathery  texture  (those  of 
V.  drac&na  are  two  inches  long),  and,  being  esteemed  an  uncom- 
mon luxury  by  the  Burmese,  sell  dearer  than  fowls'  eggs.  They 
are  oily  and  feculent-looking,  though  devoid  of  any  nauseous 
odour,  and  some  Europeans  eat  them  with  pleasure. 

A  well-known  African  species,  the  V.  or  Psammosaurus  scincus, 
extends  (without  the  slightest  difference)  to  the  extreme  desert 
region  of  the  north-west  of  India,  and  more  habitually  frequents 
dry  localities  than  others,  In  this  species  the  nasal  apertures  are 
placed  very  near  the  eyes. 

In  the  genus  Hijdrosaurus,  the  nostrils  are  more  or  less 
rounded,  and  are  situate  near  the  extremity  of  the  snout.  These 
animals  are  more  decidedly  aquatic  than  the  preceding,  and 
some  of  the  species  grow  to  seven  or  even  eight  feet  in  length. 
Such  is  the  H.  giganteus  of  Australia,  where  three,  if  not  four, 
species  inhabit.  In  all  south-eastern  Asia  and  its  islands, 
its  range  extending  to  Lower  Bengal  but  not  to  India  proper, 
although  found  in  Ceylon,  the  //.  salvator  is  a  common  species, 
which,  according  to  the  late  Dr.  Cantor,  is  "very  numerous 
in  hilly  and  marshy  localities  of  the  Malayan  peninsula.  It  is 
commonly,  during  the  day,  observed  in  the  branches  of  trees  over- 
hanging rivers,  preying  upon  birds  and  their  eggs  and  smaller 
Lizards,  and  when  disturbed  it  throws  itself  from  a  considerable 
height  into  the  water ;  it  will  courageously  defend  itself  with 
teeth  and  claws,  and  by  blows  with  its  tail." 

We  have  now  to  treat  of  the 

PACHYGLOSSA, 

Which  are  those  Lizards  which  have  the  tongue  short,  thick,  at- 
tached to  the  gullet,  and  not  exsertile,  These  fall  under  two  very 
distinct  tribes — the  Strobilosaura  and  Nyctisaura  of  Dr.  Gray,  or 


IGUANAS.  117 

the  tribe  of  the  Iguanas  and  their  kindred,  and  that  of  the  Geckos 
and  their  kindred.  The  tribe  of 

STROBILOSAURA 

Have  the  scales  of  the  back  and  sides  imbricate,  generally  rhombic, 
and  those  of  the  lower  parts  imbricate  and  of  small  size.  Tail 
with  more  or  less  distinct  whorls  of  scales.  The  eyes  diurnal, 
with  round  pupil,  and  valvular  lids.  Feet  with  toes  of  very 
unequal  length.  Many  of  these  reptiles  have  a  row  of  spines  or 
spine-like  scales  along  the  back  and  tail,  which  in  some  are  very 
long,  while  others  have  high  dorsal  and  caudal  crests,  an  expansile 
gular  pouch,  or  other  adornments.  Like  the  Yarans  among  the 
Leptoglossa  (p.  114),  these  Lizards  do  not  renew  the  tail,  or  a 
portion  of  it,  after  mutilation.  There  are  two  great  families  of 
them — one  peculiar  to  the  Old  World  with  Australia,  the  other  to 
the  New  World  ;  but  as  families  they  do  not  differ  much,  and  might 
very  well  be  retained  as  divisions  of  the  same  extensive  family. 

In  the  family  of  Jguanidcey  all  of  which  inhabit  America  or  its 
islands,  the  teeth  are  round  at  the  root,  dilated  and  compressed  at 
the  tip,  and  toothed  at  the  edge;  they  are  placed  in  a  simple 
series  on  the  inner  side  of  the  jaws,  just  below  the  edge,  and  are 
covered  on  the  inner  side  by  the  gums  ;  as  they  fall  out  they  are 
replaced  by  others,  which  grow  at  the  base  of  their  predecessors, 
and  gradually  cause  the  absorption  of  their  roots.  Probably  not 
fewer  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  species  are  now  recognised,  which 
are  distributed  under  more  than  fifty  genera.  We  can  only 
notice  a  few  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  Lizards,  some  of  the 
larger  of  which  attain  a  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  with  propor- 
tionate bulk  of  body.  As  a  general  rule,  the  larger  species  are 
mainly  herbivorous,  while  the  smaller  are  chiefly  insectivorous, 
though  many  of  the  latter  also  devour  fruit.  As  most  of  them  are 
remarkable  for  their  rapid  changes  of  colouring,  the  name  of 
Chameleon  is  often  misapplied  to  them,  in  the  supposition  that 
the  Chameleons  are  the  only  Lizards  in  which  that  curious  phe- 
nomenon is  observable.  In  one  remarkable  species,  the  Sphcerops 
anomalus,  inhabiting  Brazil,  it  is  stated  that  the  eye  nearly  re- 
sembles, that  of  the  true  Chameleons,  and  it  is  also  one  of  those 
which  are  particularly  celebrated  for  its  changes  of  hue.] 


H8 


SAUEIANS. 


The  name  Iguana  was  given  by  Laurenti  to  a  heterogeneous  group 
of  Saurians,  various  forms  being  included  which  were  first  separated 
by  Daudin.  The  Iguanas,  as  thus  restricted,  are  characterized  by  a 
very  large  thin  dew-lap  under  the  neck,  a  double  row  of  small 
palatal  teeth,  and  a  crest  on  the  back  and  tail ;  the  latter  long, 
slender,  compressed,  and  covered  with  small  imbricated  and  cari- 
iiated  scales.  Messrs.  Dumeril  and  Bibron  describe  the  genus,  thus 
modified,  as  principally  remarkable  for  the  cutaneous  prolongation 
which  constitutes  the  deep  and  thin  dew-lap,  or  pouch,  the  free 
border  of  which  describes  a  curved  line,  and  is  dentated  at  the  part 


Fig.  28. — Iguana  tuberculata. 


nearest  the  chin.  The  head  is  moderately  long,  and  has  the  form 
of  a  pyramid  with  four  faces.  The  neck  is  slightly  compressed, 
the  limbs  long,  the  toes  unequal  and  sometimes  denticulate  on  the 
edge.  The  five  toes  of  the  posterior  feet  are  graduated  ;  the  tail, 
which  is  long  and  slender,  is  slightly  flattened  from  right  to  left. 


IGUANAS.  119 

The  Iguanas  live  chiefly  on  trees,  but  they  take  readily  to  the 
water,  swimming  with  great  facility. 

There  are  numerous  species,  all  of  which  are  found  in  South 
America  and  the  Antilles.  In  the  Island  of  Isabella,  Sir  E.  Belcher 
found  swarms  of  them  which  he  had  reason  to  consider  omnivorous, 
feeding  voraciously  on  birds'  eggs  and  the  intestines  of  birds  and 
insects. 

The  Common  Iguana,  /.  tuberculata,  which  inhabits  a  great  part 
of  South  America,  is  one  of  the  best  known  species  of  this  family. 
These  reptiles  are  easily  recognised  from  the  large  pouch  under- 
neath the  neck,  and  the  dentated  crest  which  extends  from  the  head 
to  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  The  tail,  feet,  and  body  are  covered 
with  small  scales.  On  the  upper  part,  their  colour  is  a  more  or  less 
decided  green,  sometimes  becoming  blue,  at  others  slate- coloured  ; 
the  lower  part  is  of  a  yellowish  green.  The  sides  present  zigzag, 
roundish,  brown  scales,  edged  with  yellow  ;  frequently  a  yellow 
line  is  traced  obliquely  in  front  of  the  shoulder,  and  some  indi- 
viduals are  sprinkled  with  brown ;  others  have  the  limbs  spotted 
with  brown  on  a  black  ground.  The  tail  is  surrounded  with 
brownish  rays  alternating  with  others  green  and  yellow.  When 
full  grown  it  attains  the  length  of  four  feet,  but  the  more  ordi- 
nary length  of  the  animals  is  about  thirty  inches.  They  are  very 
gentle  creatures,  and  perfectly  harmless,  feeding  almost  exclu- 
sively on  vegetables.  They  are  hunted  in  America  for  their  flesh, 
which  is  excellent ;  and  they  are  especially  common  at  Surinam, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cayenne,  and  in  Brazil. 

[Of  a  kindred  species,  Metopoceros  cornutus,  which  also  is 
common  in  the  Antilles,  an  excellent  description  has  been  pub- 
lished by  Lieutenant  Tyler,*  which  we  must  endeavour  to  con- 
dense. This  reptile  attains  a  length  of  five,  and  sometimes  even 
of  six  feet,  the  tail  being  about  twice  and  three  quarters  the 
length  of  the  body.  When  first  hatched  it  measures  four  inches. 
The  mouth  is  large,  and  is  armed  with  two  rows  of  maxillary  and 
two  of  palatal  teeth,  which  appear  simply  to  be  intended  to  crop 
leaves  and  to  provide  the  stomach  with  vegetable  food.  Each 
maxillary  tooth  is  a  little  double-edged  saw,  and  they  are  so 
lapped  over  each  other  that  the  reptile,  in  closing  its  mouth  upon 
*  "  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  "  for  1850,  p.  106. 


120  SAUEIANS. 

a  leaf,  cuts  through  it  completely.  The  tongue  is  curiously  used 
by  the  animal  to  draw  food  into  the  mouth,  and  to  forward  it 
down  the  gullet,  or  to  repel  it  at  will,  and  the  only  use  of  the 
palatal  teeth  appears  to  be  to  secure  the  food  while  the  tongue 
moves  forward  to  afford  fresh  assistance  in  its  journey  down  the 
throat.  The  tongue  is  always  covered  by  a  glutinous  secretion, 
which  is  perceptibly  appended  to  the  jaws  when  the  mouth  is 
open.  Between  the  lower  jaw  and  the  chest  is  a  pouch,  which  the 
animal  draws  in  or  extends  simultaneously  with  the  compression 
or  swelling  out  of  the  body  when  enraged  or  excited.  The 
portion  of  the  gular  pouch  attached  to  the  jaw  is  inflatable,  and 
food  is  sometimes  retained  in  it  for  a  considerable  period,  but  the 
lower  part  is  merely  extensible. 

"  Whilst  always  retaining  the  same  colours,  this  Iguana  has  the 
power  of  considerably  changing  its  hues  ;  but  these  changes  are 
gradually  performed.  The  colours  become  more  dull  as  the 
period  of  the  change  of  cuticle  approaches — which  is  not,  however, 
very  frequent.  Each  scale  has  its  own  tint,  and  the  colours 
being  thus  irregularly  blended,  an  appearance  is  given,  particu- 
larly to  the  younger  reptiles,  very  much  like  that  of  worsted- 
work. 

"  These  Iguanas  live  principally  on  trees,  and  near  the  wind- 
ward coast  of  the  island"  (of  St.  Lucia).  "  They  are  not  much 
seen,  excepting  in  the  months  of  February,  March,  and  April,  when 
they  quit  their  hiding-places,  and  repair  to  the  sea-shore  or  other 
sandy  places  to  lay  their  eggs  in  the  sand.  The  older  females  lay 
a  great  number  of  eggs.  I  have  known  an  instance  of  one  in 
confinement  laying  five  in  one  day,  and  thirty- two  within  the 
space  of  ten  minutes  five  days  afterwards,  making  thirty-seven  in 
all.  Younger  females  are  much  less  prolific,  according  to  their 
size.  The  eggs  are  very  liable  to  destruction  by  Ants,  which  fact 
probably  accounts  for  their  being  usually  deposited  in  sea-sand. 
They  are  soft,  and  without  any  white,  and  their  shell  resembles 
the  most  beautiful  kid  leather  used  for  French  gloves,  of  a  very 
light  straw-colour.  They  are  about  the  size  of  those  of  a  domestic 
Pigeon,  but  rather  longer ;  but  they  vary  in  dimensions  according 
to  the  age  and  size  of  the  Iguana. 

"  This  Iguana  is  not  averse  to  water,  when  not  too  cold,  taking 


IGUANAS.  121 

to  it  only  when  the  sun  is  shining ;  in  fact,  not  moving  about 
much  at  any  other  time.  Its  mode  of  swimming  differs  from  that 
of  other  Lizards,  inasmuch  as  it  places  its  four  legs  close  by  the 
side  of  its  body,  and  swims  entirely  with  its  tail.  It  dives  with 
great  facility,  and  remains  sometimes  for  a  considerable  time 
under  water.  I  believe  that  it  never  ventures  into  the  sea.  The 
tail  is  a  very  valuable  limb ;  for,  besides  being  the  sole  means  of 
swimming  possessed  by  the  animal,  it  is  of  great  use  in  climbing 
trees,  although  not  prehensile ;  and  it  is  a  most  important  weapon 
of  defence,  a  blow  from  it  being  frequently  sufficient  to  inflict  a 
severe  wound.  In  fact,  this  reptile  is  rather  formidable  when 
brought  to  bay  in  the  woods.  It  is  hunted  by  the  natives  with 
Dogs  trained  for  the  purpose.  The  Dog,  immediately  upon 
scenting  it,  gives  tongue,  and,  if  on  the  ground,  the  Dog  seizes  it 
by  the  back,  and  either  kills  it  or  maims  it,  which  makes  its 
capture  easy ;  if  in  a  tree,  the  Iguana  is  either  shaken  down — a 
matter  ordinarily  of  no  small  difficulty — or  the  branch  is  cut  off. 
It  is  almost  useless  to  attempt  to  find  these  reptiles  without  Dogs, 
as  the  resemblance  of  their  colour  to  that  of  the  trees  which  they 
inhabit  prevents  them  from  being  easily  seen.  Few  Dogs  but 
those  accustomed  to  the  sport  will  touch  them,  as,  in  addition  to 
the  blows  which  they  inflict  with  the  tail,  they  bite  and  scratch 
furiously ;  and  when  once  they  lay  hold  of  anything  with  their 
teeth,  they  can  only  be  made  to  let  go  by  an  inducement  to  bite 
some  other  attractive  object  being  offered  to  them.  They  run 
into  holes  when  chased,  if  an  opportunity  offers,  and  when  their 
eyes  are  hidden  from  view,  they  fancy  that  their  whole  body  is 
safely  covered.  The  flesh,  particularly  of  the  female,  is  a  great 
delicacy  ;  it  is  cooked  in  various  ways,  sometimes  in  a  fricassee, 
with  the  eggs  whole,  sometimes  roasted  or  stewed.  The  eggs 
have  a  very  glutinous  consistence.  The  flesh  is  said  to  disagree 
with  some  constitutions. 

"  Unless  when  caught  young,  it  is  very  difficult  to  induce  these 
reptiles  to  feed  in  confinement,  and  particularly  when  watched. 
Their  disposition  is  sulky  and  savage,  and  I  have  known  some  of 
them,"  continues  Lieutenant  Tyler,  "  to  die  in  confinement  from 
starvation,  rather  than  feed.  This  has  caused  me  to  try  the 
following  plan,  which  I  find  very  successful,  of  affording  them 


122  SAUEIANS. 

nourishment : — I  hold  them  by  the  lower  part  of  the  body  with 
one  hand,  and  with  the  other  I  irritate  them  until  they  open  their 
mouth  and  attempt  to  bite,  when  I  insert  food ;  and  by  annoying 
them  in  this  way,  I  have  not  only  made  them  eat  their  natural 
food,  but  I  have  killed  some  of  them  by  forcing  them  to  eat  corn 
and  leaves,  which  appear  to  have  disagreed  with  them.  By  some 
of  the  natives  this  Iguana  is  said  to  eat  Lizards  and  insects ;  but 
I  have  opened  several,  and  I  have  never  succeeded  in  finding  any 
but  vegetable  matter  in  the  stomach." 

Of  the  habits  of  a  kindred  species  of  Iguana,  the  Cyclura  lophura, 
inhabiting  Jamaica,  Mr.  Gosse  has  given  an  elaborate  description ; 
and  he  tells  us  that  .the  gular  pouch  in  the  Iguanida  "  is  exten- 
sible, but  not  inflatable"  as  is  the  current  opinion.  Holbrook  and 
others  have  remarked  the  same ;  and  Professor  Thomas  Bell 
describes  the  fold  of  skin  as  being  drawn  down  by  a  peculiar 
arrangement  of  the  lingual  bone,  and  a  singular  cartilage  fixed  to 
it  and  attached  also  to  the  skin.  These  parts  are  moved  by  deli- 
cate muscles,  so  that,  when  the  cartilage  is  drawn  down,  the  skin 
of  course  is  distended,  and  follows  it  "  in  the  same  way  that  the 
silk  is  stretched  over  the  whalebone  of  an  umbrella/'  "  In  fact 
the  skin,"  writes  Professor  Holbrook,  "  when  distended  in  life  by 
the  animal,  does  not  resemble  the  inflated  vocal  sacs  of  the  Frogs 
and  Toads,  which  are  round,  but  looks  like  a  fold  of  the  skin, 
pinched  and  drawn  down,  the  two  portions  of  it  being  in  contact, 
like  a  dewlap."  It  appears  that  the  Cyclura,  also,  is  exclusively 
herbivorous  ;  and  Mr.  Gosse  remarks  upon  the  severe  wounds 
which  it  inflicts  upon  Dogs  with  its  sharply- serrated  tail.  In 
general,  the  larger  species  of  this  family  are  solely  vegetable - 
feeders,  while  the  smaller  kinds  (such  as  the  Anoles)  are  more  or 
less  insectivorous  ;  and  there  are  some,  of  intermediate  size,  which 
even  prey  occasionally  upon  the  kindred  Anoles  and  other  small 
animals.  The  genera  of  these  reptiles  are  exceedingly  numerous, 
as  we  have  seen,  and  amongst  so  many  there  must  be  considerable 
variety  in  the  habits  ;  but  we  can  only  notice  a  very  few  of  them. 
Within  the  limited  area  of  the  small  archipelago  of  the  Gallapagos, 
situate  on  the  equator  about  ten  degrees  west  of  South  America, 
there  are  two  remarkable  species  of  Iguanidce,  of  which  the  habits 
have  been  described  and  commented  upon  by  Mr.  Darwin  in  his 


IGUANAS.  123 

volume  of  the  "  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Beagle"  One  of  them  is 
particularly  so,  because,  as  that  naturalist  observes,  it  is  the  only 
existing  Saurian  which  can  properly  be  said  to  be  a  maritime 
animal.  In  the  whole  of  that  group  of  islands,  as  he  tells  us,  there 
is  only  one  rill  of  fresh  water  that  reaches  the  coast ;  yet  this 
reptile  frequents  the  sea-beaches,  and  no  other  parts  of  the  islands. 
He  adds  that  it  is  the  only  known  existing  Lizard  that  feeds 
exclusively  on  aquatic  productions.  Although  he  refers  both 
species  to  the  genus  Amblyrhynclms,  the  aquatic  sort  now  con- 
stitutes the  genus  Oreocephalus  of  Dr.  Gray,  and  it  bears  the  name 
of  O.cristatus.  This  Lizard,  according  to  Mr,  Darwin,  "is  ex- 
tremely common  on  all  the  islands  throughout  the  archipelago  of 
the  Gallapagos.  It  lives  exclusively  on  the  rocky  sea-beaches, 
and  is  never  found — at  least,  I  never  saw  one — even  ten  yards 
inshore.  It  is  a  hideous-looking  creature,  of  a  dirty  black  colour, 
stupid  and  sluggish  in  its  movements.  The  usual  length  of  a  full- 
grown  one  is  about  a  yard,  but  there  are  some  even  four  feet  long. 
I  have  seen  a  large  one  which  weighed  twenty  pounds.  On  the 
island  of  Albemarle  they  seem  to  grow  to  a  greater  size  than  on 
any  other.  These  Lizards  were  occasionally  seen  some  hundred 
yards  from  the  shore  swimming  about ;  and  Captain  Colnett,  in 
his  '  Voyage/  says,  '  they  go  out  to  sea.  in  shoals  to  fish.'  With 
respect  to  the  object,  I  believe  that  he  is  mistaken  ;  but  the  fact 
stated  on  so  good  an  authority  cannot  be  doubted.  When  in  the 
water  the  animal  swims  with  perfect  ease  and  quickness,  by  a 
serpentine  movement  of  its  body  and  flattened  tail — the  legs, 
during  this  time,  being  motionless  and  closely  collapsed  on  its 
sides.  A  seaman  on  board  sank  one,  with  a  heavy  weight  attached 
to  it,  thinking  thus  to  kill  it  directly  ;  but  when  an  hour  after- 
wards he  drew  up  the  line,  the  Lizard  was  quite  active.  Their 
limbs  and  strong  claws  are  admirably  adapted  for  crawling  over 
the  rugged  and  fissured  masses  of  lava  which  everywhere  there 
form  the  coast.  In  such  situations,  a  group  of  six  or  seven  of 
these  ugly  reptiles  may  oftentimes  be  seen  on  the  black  rocks, 
a  few  feet  above  the  surf,  basking  in  the  sun  with  outstretched 
legs.  I  opened  the  stomachs  of  several/'  continues  Mr.  Darwin, 
"  and  in  each  case  found  it  largely  distended  with  minced  sea- weed 
of  that  kind  which  grows  in  thin  foliaceous  expansions  of  a  bright 


124  SAUKIANS. 

green  or  dull  red  colour.  I  do  not  recollect  having  observed  this 
sea- weed  in  any  quantity  on  the  tidal  rocks  ;  and  I  have  reason 
to  believe  that  it  grows  at  the  bottom,  of  the  sea,  at  some  little 
distance  from  the  coast.  If  such  is  the  case,  the  object  of 
these  animals  occasionally  going  out  to  sea  is  explained.  The 
stomach  contained  nothing  but  the  sea- weed.  Mr.  Bynoe,  how- 
ever, found  a  piece  of  a  Crab  in  one ;  but  this  might  have  got  in 
accidentally.  The  intestines  were  large,  as  in  other  herbivorous 
animals." 

The  food  of  this  Lizard,  equally  with  its  compressed  form  of 
tail,  and  the  certain  fact  of  its  having  been  seen  voluntarily  swim- 
ming out  at  sea,  absolutely  prove  its  aquatic  habits ;  nevertheless, 
as  we  are  told  by  Mr.  Darwin,  "  there  is  in  this  respect  one 
strange  anomaly,  namely,  that  when  frightened  it  will  not  enter 
the  water.  From  this  cause,  it  is  easy  to  drive  these  Lizards  down 
to  any  little  point  overhanging  the  sea,  where  they  will  sooner 
allow  a  person  to  catch  hold  of  their  tail  than  jump  into  the  water. 
They  do  not  seem  to  have  any  notion  of  biting  ;  but  when  much 
frightened  they  squirt  a  drop  of  fluid  from  each  nostril.  One  day 
I  carried  one  to  a  deep  pool  left  by  the  retiring  tide,  and  threw  it 
in  several  times  as  far  as  I  was  able.  It  invariably  returned  in  a 
direct  line  to  the  spot  where  I  stood.  It  swam  near  the  bottom, 
with  a  very  graceful  and  rapid  movement,  and  occasionally  aided 
itself  over  the  uneven  ground  with  its  feet.  As  soon  as  it  arrived 
near  the  margin,  but  still  being  under  water,  it  either  tried  to 
conceal  itself  in  the  tufts  of  sea- weed,  or  it  entered  some  crevice. 
When  it  thought  the  danger  was  passed,  it  crawled  out  on  the  dry 
rocks,  and  shuffled  away  as  quickly  as  it  could.  I  several  times 
caught  this  same  Lizard  by  driving  it  down  to  a  point,  and  though 
possessed  of  such  perfect  powers  of  diving  and  swimming,  nothing 
would  induce  it  to  enter  the  water ;  and  as  often  as  I  threw  it  in, 
it  returned  in  the  manner  above  described.  Perhaps  this  singular 
piece  of  apparent  stupidity  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  circum- 
stance that  this  reptile  has  no  enemy  whatever  on  shore,  whereas 
at  sea  it  must  often  fall  a  prey  to  the  numerous  Sharks.  Hence, 
probably  urged  by  a  fixed  and  hereditary  instinct  that  the  shore 
is  its  place  of  safety,  whatever  the  emergency  may  be,  it  there 
takes  refuge.  I  asked  several  of  the  inhabitants  if  they  knew 


IGUANAS.  125 

where  it  laid  its  eggs :  they  said,  that  although  well  acquainted 
with  the  eggs  of  the  other  kind,  they  had  not  the  least  knowledge 
of  the  manner  in  which  this  species  is  propagated — a  fact,  con- 
sidering how  common  an  animal  this  Lizard  is,  not  a  little  extra- 
ordinary. During  our  visit  (in  October)  I  saw  extremely  few 
small  individuals  of  this  species,  and  none  I  should  think  under 
a  year  old.  From  this  circumstance  it  seems  probable  that  the 
breeding  season  had  not  commenced." 

The  terrene   species,   AmblycepJwlus    subcristatus,   unlike    the 
aquatic  one,  is  confined  to  the  central  islands  of  the  Gallapagos 
archipelago,  where  they  inhabit  both  the  higher  and  damp,  as  well 
as  the  lower  and  sterile  parts  ;  but  in  the  latter  they  are  much 
more  numerous.     "  I  cannot  give  a  more  forcible  proof  of  their 
numbers,"  relates  Mr.  Darwin,  "  than  by  stating  that,  when  we  were 
left  at  James  Island,  we  could  not  for  some  time  find  a  spot  free 
from  their  burrows  on  which  to  pitch  our  tent.     These  Lizards, 
like  their  brothers  of  the  sea-kind,  are  ugly  animals ;   and,  from 
their  low  facial  angle,  have  a  singularly  stupid  appearance.     In 
size,  perhaps,  they  are  a  little  inferior  to  the  latter,  but  several  of 
them  weighed  between  ten  and  fifteen  pounds  each.     The  colour 
of  their  belly,  front  legs,  and  head  (excepting  the  crown,  which  is 
nearly  white)  is  a  dirty  yellowish  orange ;  the  back  is  of  a  brownish 
red,  which,  in  the  younger  specimens,  is  darker.     In  their  move- 
ments they  are  lazy  and  half-torpid.     When  not  frightened,  they 
slowly  crawl  along,  with  their  tails  and  bellies  dragging  on  the 
ground.      They  often  stop  and  doze  for  a  moment,  with  closed 
eyes,  and  hind  legs  spread  out  on  the  parched  soil.     These  Lizards 
inhabit  burrows ;  which  they  sometimes  excavate  between  frag- 
ments of  lava,  but  more  generally  on  level  patches  of  soft  volcanic 
sandstone.     The  holes  do  not  appear  to  be  very  deep,  and  they 
enter  the  ground  at  a  small  angle  ;  so  that  when  walking  over  one 
of  these  Lizard  warrens,  the  soil  is  constantly  giving  way,  much 
to  the  annoyance  of  the  tired  pedestrian.      This  animal,  when 
excavating  its  burrows,  alternately  works  the  opposite  sides  of  its 
body.     One  front  leg  for  a  short  times  scratches  up  the  soil,  and 
throws  it  towards  the  hind  foot,  which  is  well  placed  so  as  to  heave 
it  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  hole.     This   side  of  the  body  being 
tired,  the  other  takes  up  the  task,  and  so  alternately.     I  watched 


126  SAURIANS. 

one  for  a  long  time,"  continues  Mr.  Darwin,  "  till  half  of  its  body 
was  buried ;  I  then  walked  up  and  pulled  it  by  the  tail ;  at  this 
it  was  greatly  astonished,  and  soon  shuffled  up  to  see  what  was  the 
matter  ;  and  then  stared  me  in  the  face,  as  much  as  to  say,  '  What 
made  you  pull  my  tail  ?  '  They  feed  by  day,  and  do  not  wander 
far  from  their  burrows ;  and,  if  frightened,  they  rush  to  them  with 
a  most  awkward  gait.  Except  when  running  downhill,  they 
cannot  move  very  fast ;  which  appears  chiefly  owing  to  the  lateral 
position  of  their  legs.  They  are  not  at  all  timorous  ;  when  atten- 
tively watching  any  one,  they  curl  up  their  tails,  and  raising  them- 
selves on  their  front  legs,  nod  their  head  vertically,  with  a  quick 
movement,  and  try  to  look  very  fierce,  but  in  reality  they  are  not 
at  all  so ;  if  one  just  stamps  the  ground,  down  go  their  tails,  and 
off  they  shuffle  as  quickly  as  they  can.  I  have  several  times 
observed  small  fly- eating  Lizards,  when  watching  anything,  nod 
their  heads  in  precisely  the  same  manner  ;  but  I  do  not  at  all 
know  for  what  purpose.  If  the  Amblyrhynchus  is  held,  and 
plagued  with  a  stick,  it  will  bite  it  very  severely ;  but  I  caught 
many  by  the  tail,  and  they  never  tried  to  bite  me.  If  two  are 
placed  on  the  ground,  and  held  together,  they  will  fight  and  bite 
each  other  till  blood  is  drawn.  Those  individuals  (and  they  are 
the  greater  number)  which  inhabit  the  lower  country,  can  scarcely 
taste  a  drop  of  water  throughout  the  year;  but  they  consume 
much  of  the  succulent  cactus,  the  branches  of  which  are  occa- 
sionally broken  off  by  the  wind.  I  have  sometimes  thrown  a 
piece  to  two  or  three  when  together  ;  and  it  was  amusing  enough 
to  see  each  trying  to  seize  and  carry  it  away  in  its  mouth,  like  so 
many  hungry  Dogs  with  a  bone.  They  eat  very  deliberately,  but 
do  not  chew  their  food.  The  little  birds  are  aware  how  harmless 
these  creatures  are  :  I  have  seen  one  of  the  thick- billed  Finches 
(peculiar  to  the  Gallapagos)  picking  at  one  end  of  a  piece  of  cactus 
— which  is  in  request  among  all  the  animals  of  the  lower  region — 
whilst  a  Lizard  was  eating  at  the  other  ;  and  afterwards  the  little 
bird,  with  the  utmost  indifference,  hopped  on  the  back  of  the 
reptile.  The  stomachs  of  several  that  I  opened  were  full  of 
vegetable  fibres  and  leaves  of  different  trees,  especially  of  a  species 
of  Acacia.  In  the  upper  region  they  live  chiefly  on  the  acid  and 
astringent  berries  of  the  guayavita,  under  which  trees  I  have  seen 


BASILISK.  127 

these  Lizards  and  the  huge  Tortoises  feeding  together.  To  obtain 
the  acacia  leaves,  they  crawl  up  the  low,  stunted  trees  ;  and  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  see  one,  or  a  pair,  quietly  browsing,  whilst 
seated  on  a  branch  several  feet  from  the  ground. 

"  The  meat  of  these  animals,  when  cooked,  is  white ;  and  by 
those  whose  stomachs  rise  above  all  prejudices,  it  is  relished  as 
very  good  food.  Humboldt  has  remarked,  that  in  intertropical 
South  America,  all  Lizards  which,  inhabit  dry  regions  are  esteemed 
as  delicacies  for  the  table.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Gallapagos  say, 
that  those  inhabiting  the  damp  region  drink  water,  but  that  the 
others  do  not  travel  up  for  it  from  the  sterile  country,  like  the 
gigantic  Land  Tortoises.  At  the  time  of  our  visit,  the  females 
had  within  their  bodies  numerous  large  elongated  eggs.  These 
they  lay  in  their  burrows,  and  the  inhabitants  seek  them  for 
food."  " 

These  two  curious  Lizards  of  the  Gallapagos  agree  nearly  in 
general  structure,  and  in  many  of  their  habits;  and  neither  of 
them  has  that  rapidity  of  movement  which  is  characteristic  of 
various  other  Iguanidae.  The  form  of  the  head  resembles  a  good 
deal  that  of  a  land  Tortoise,  and  we  find  the  same  form  of  head, 
and  again  the  same  disinclination  to  bite,  in  certain  herbivorous 
Lizards,  such  as  the  Uromastyx  and  kindred  forms,  which  are 
referred  by  Dr.  Gray  to  the  corresponding  Old  World  family  of 
AgamidaeJ] 

In  the  family  of  Iguanas  the  Basilisk  may  be  noted.  According 
to  ancient  authors,  reproduced  by  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  the 
Basilisk,  although  such  a  small  animal,  could  produce  instant  death 
by  its  sting.  The  man  whose  eyes  met  theirs  was  supposed  to  be 
at  once  devoured  by  an  intense  fire.  Such  are  the  fabulous  ideas 
which  tradition  has  transmitted  to  us  about  these  animals.  It  is 
to  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  Basilisk  of  modern  herpetology 
is  not  the  /foo-iAto-Kos,  or  Royal  Serpent,  of  the  ancients,  the  Cocka- 
trice of  Scripture.  The  reptile  which  now  bears  the  name  is  an 
inoffensive  animal,  living  in  the  forests  of  Guiana,  Martinique, 
and  Mexico,  and  leaping  from  branch  to  branch,  in  order  to  gather 
the  seeds  or  seize  the  insects  on  which  it  feeds. 

The  Basilisk  is  distinguished  from  the  other  Iguanian  Lizards 
by  the  absence  of  the  long  and  dilatable  skin  under  the  throat, 


128 


SAUKIANS. 


and  by  the   presence   of   an   elevated   crest   which    runs   along 
the  whole  length  of  the  back  and  tail. 

The  Hooded  Basilisk,  B.  americanus  (Fig.  29),  measures  seven  or 
eight  inches  from  the  nose  to  origin  of  the  tail,  which  is  itself  nearly 
three  times  as  long,  being  nineteen  or  twenty  inches  in  length. 
Upon  the  occiput  it  has  a  sort  of  horn  or  bag,  in  shape  like  a 
hood,  round  at  the  summit,  and  slightly  inclined  towards  the 
neck.  This  bag,  when  distended,  is  about  the  size  of  a  pullet's 
egg.  In  the  male  the  back  and  tail  are  surmounted  by  a 
raised  crest,  such  as  we  have  described  above,  sustained  in  its 


Fig.  29.— Hooded  Basilisk. 

thickness  by  the  knotty  process  of  the  vertebras.  The  general 
colour  is  a  mixture  of  sandy  brown,  slightly  marbled  on  the  back 
and  sides,  with  shades  of  blue  on  the  upper  part,  and  a  silvery 
white  underneath.  On  the  throat  are  larger  bands  of  brown,, 
and  on  each  side  of  the  eye  is  a  white  ray  bordered  with  black, 
which  is  lost  upon  the  back ;  and  the  tail  is  so  remarkably 
attenuated  towards  its  extremity  as  to  show  the  articulations  of  the 
vertebrae  beneath. 

[According  to  Mr.  0.  Salvin,  the  Basilisk  is  very  common  about 
Lanquin,  in  the  province  of  Guatemala,  where  it  may  frequently 
be  seen  on  the  low  branches  of  a  bush,  and  it  is  particularly  fond 
of  basking  on  the  boughs  of  a  felled  tree  in  a  clearing  near  a 


ANGLES.  129 

stream.  In  some  specimens  of  the  males,  we  are  informed,  the  tail  is 
much  more  compressed  than  in  others.  In  a  series  of  the  young 
the  crest  is  shown  in  all  stages  of  development.  We  also  learn 
from  this  naturalist  that,  notwithstanding  the  compressed  form  of 
its  tail,  the  Basilisk  does  not  habitually  enter  the  water,  as  most 
writers  have  supposed. 

The  sub- family  of  Anoles  (Anoliince)  have  mostly  the  skin  of 
their  toes  widened  (under  the  ante-penultimate  phalanx)  into  an 
oval  disk,  striated  crosswise  underneath,  which  enables  them  to 
attach  themselves  to  various  surfaces.  They  do  not  attain  the  large 
size  of  the  Iguanas,  and  the  habits  and  characteristics  of  the 
various  species  inhabiting  Jamaica  are  thus  vividly  described  by 
Mr.  P.  H.  Gosse  in  his  "  Naturalist's  Sojourn  "  in  that  beautiful 
island.  "  The  stranger/'  he  remarks,  "  walks  into  the  dwelling- 
house.  Lizards,  still  Lizards,  meet  his  eyes.  The  little  Anoles 
(A.  iodurus,  A.  opalinus,  &c.)  are  chasing  each  other  in  and  out 
between  the  jalousies,  now  stopping  to  protrude  from  the  throat  a 
broad  disk  of  brilliant  colour,  crimson  or  orange,  like  the  petal  of 
a  flower,  then  withdrawing  it,  and  again  displaying  it  in 
coquettish  sport.  Then  one  leaps  a  yard  or  two  through  the  air 
and  alights  on  the  back  of  his  playfellow ;  and  both  struggle  and 
twist  about  in  unimaginable  contortions.  Another  is  running  up 
and  down  on  the  plastered  wall,  catching  the  Ants  as  they  roam 
in  black  lines  over  its  whitened  surface ;  and  another  leaps  from 
the  top  of  some  piece  of  furniture  upon  the  back  of  the  visitor's 
chair,  and  scampers  nimbly  along  the  collar  of  his  coat.  It  jumps 
on  the  table  ; — can  it  be  the  same  ?  An  instant  ago  it  was  of  the 
most  beautiful  golden  green,  except  the  base  of  the  tail,  which  was 
of  a  soft,  light,  purple  hue ;  now,  as  if  changed  by  an  enchanter's 
wand,  it  is  of  a  dull  sooty  brown  all  over,  and  becomes  momen- 
tarily darker  and  darker,  or  mottled  with  dark  and  pale  patches  of 
a  most  unpleasing  aspect.  Presently,  however,  the  mental  emotion, 
whatever  it  was — anger,  or  fear,  or  dislike — has  passed  away,  and 
the  lovely  green  hue  sparkles  in  the  glancing  sunlight  as  before." 

The  green  colour  of  certain  of  these  Anoles  so  closely  resembles 
that  of  foliage,  that  they  are  apt  to  be  overlooked.  Thus  Mr. 
Gosse  was  about  to  throw  a  net  over  a  Butterfly,  when,  as  he 
remarks,  "  on  a  slight  rustle  among  the  leaves,  I  observed  that  it 

K 


130  SAUEIANS. 

was  fluttering  as  if  unable  to  get  away.  My  impression  was  that 
an  invisible  Spider's- web  was  holding  it ;  but,  looking  closer,  I 
found  that  a  little  green  Anolis  had  the  Butterfly  in  its  mouth. 
Its  colour  was  so  exactly  that  of  the  verdant  leaves  of  the  bush, 
that  I  had  not  perceived  it  before,  although  my  eyes  were  fixed  on 
the  spot.  I  have  also  observed  the  same  species  feeding  on  Ants. 
On  a  gateway  a  number  of  scattered  Ants  of  a  small  kind  were 
running  to  and  fro,  as  they  very  frequently  are  seen  to  do.  A 
beautiful  male  Anolis  had  stationed  himself  on  the  post  perpen- 
dicularly, with  the  head  downwards,  and  as  the  Ants  one  by  one 
came  near  him  he  snapped  them  up.  Each  capture  was  the  work 
of  an  instant ;  he  touched  the  post  with  his  muzzle,  and  the  Ant 
was  gone :  they  were  evidently  seized  with  the  lips,  not  with  the 
tongue.  These  little  creatures  are  as  playful  as  they  are  pretty. 
As  they  creep  about  they  often  catch  sight  of  another  of  the  same 
species ;  immediately  one  suddenly  raises  and  depresses  the  head 
and  fore-parts,  flirts  the  tail  from  side  to  side,  and  extends  the 
goitre  by  means  of  the  elastic  arched  bone  in  front,  till  its  tip 
reaches  nearly  as  far  as  the  muzzle.  The  brilliant  goitre  is  thus 
alternately  extended  and  relaxed  several  times.  After  being  thus 
'  signalized '  for  a  few  seconds,  one  darts  towards  the  other,  who 
usually  runs  away,  apparently  as  if  wishing  to  be  caught."  Else- 
where Mr.  Gosse  describes  the  noosing  of  an  example  of  a  fine  Lizard 
of  this  Anolis  group,  the  Dactyl®,  Edwardsii,  which  is  also  a  native 
of  Jamaica,  "  about  a  foot  long,  and  of  a  lively  green  colour.  He 
was  very  savage,  biting  at  everything  near :  presently  his  colour 
began  to  change  from  green  to  blackish,  till  it  was  of  an  uniform 
bluish  black,  with  darker  bands  on  the  body,  and  a  brownish  black 
on  the  tail ;  the  only  trace  of  green  was  just  around  the  eyes."  He 
was  placed  in  a  cage,  and  "  at  night,"  continues  Mr.  Gosse,  "I 
observed  him  vividly  green  as  at  first — a  token,  as  I  presumed, 
that  he  had  in  some  measure  recovered  his  equanimity.  The  next 
day  he  continued  very  fierce.  I  hung  the  cage  out  in  the  sun  ;  two 
or  three  times  in  the  course  of  the  day  I  observed  him  green,  but 
for  the  most  part  he  was  black.  The  changes  were  rather  quickly 
accomplished.  The  food  of  this  Lizard  appears  to  include  both 
vegetable  and  animal  substances.  I  was  never  able  to  induce 
one  to  eat  in  captivity ;  but  the  dissection  of  several  has  given  me 


LIZARDS.  131 

this  result.  Thus  in  one  I  have  found  seeds  and  farinaceous 
substance  ;  in  another  the  fragments  of  a  brilliant  beetle  of  the 
weevil  group.  I  once  observed  one  deliberately  eat  the  ripe 
glass-berries,  munching  half  of  one  at  a  mouthfuL"  * 

Thus  far  we  have  treated  of  chiefly  arboreal  Iguanidcs ;  and 
although  a  Marine  Lizard  ( Trachycephalus  cristatus)  cannot  well 
be  so  designated,  it  nevertheless  belongs  to  the  same  particular 
series.  We  have  next  a  long  series  of  mainly  terrene  genera  of 
the  same  great  American  family,  in  which  the  body  is  subtrigonal 
or  depressed.  As  many  as  twenty-two  genera,  with  sixty-one 
species  of  the  terrene  Iguanidce,  were  catalogued  by  Dr.  Gray  in 
1845,  and  a  good  many  have  since  been  added.  There  is  a  cor- 
responding series  in  the  kindred  Old  World  family  of  Aganddce, 
and  in  neither  instance  are  the  majority  of  them  ground -frequent- 
ing Lizards  to  any  great  extent.  Thus,  of  Dr.  Gray's  first 
genus  Tropidolipis  (so  named  from  its  large  keeled  scales),  and  of 
which  as  many  as  nine  species  are  given  from  Mexico,  a  tenth 
(T.  undulatus,  of  the  United  States)  is  described  by  Professor 
Holbrook  to  inhabit  chiefly  the  pine -forests,  where  it  is  often 
found  under  the  bark  of  decaying  trees;  it  also  commonly  chooses 
old  fences  for  its  basking-place.  "  It  is  exceedingly  rapid  in  its 
motions,  climbing  with  great  facility  to  the  tops  of  trees,  and  is 
hence  not  taken  alive  without  great  trouble.  Its  food  consists 
of  insects,  especially  such  as  are  found  under  decaying  wood." 
The  colouring  of  this  Lizard  is  remarkably  brown,  with  narrow 
zig-zag  black  bands  above,  and  green  below,  with  a  white  medium 
stripe  bordered  with  black  ;  throat  and  breast  black,  with  a  broad 
green  band  across.  Various  species  of  kindred  genera  were 
collected  by  Mr.  Darwin,  and  are  figured  in  the  "  Zoology  of 
H.M.S.  Beagle"  and  of  one  of  these  (probably  Lecolanus  Dar- 
winii},  which  he  observed  at  Bahia  Blanca,  in  Northern  Patagonia, 
he  remarks  that  "  it  lives  on  the  bare  sand  near  the  sea-coast,  and 
from  its  mottled  colour,  the  brownish  scales  being  speckled  with 
white,  yellowish  red,  and  dirty  blue,  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  the  surrounding  surface.  When  frightened  it  attempts  to 
avoid  discovery  by  feigning  death,  with  outstretched  legs,  depressed 
body,  and  closed  eyes :  if  further  molested,  it  buries  itself  with 
*  "A  Naturalist's  Sojourn  in  Jamaica,"  by  P.  H.  Gosse. 


132 


SAUEIANS. 


great  quickness  in  the  loose  sand.  This  Lizard,  from  its  flattened 
body  and  short  legs,  cannot  run  quickly."  With  others  these 
Lizards  constitute  the  sub-family  Tropidolepina  of  Dr.  Gray, 
which  are  followed  by  the  sub-family  Phrynosomince,  in  which  some 
very  singular  Lizards  find  their  place.  The  most  extraordinary 
of  them  constitute  the  genus  Phrynosoma,  four  species  of  which 
inhabit  Western  North  America.  These  have  great  spines  to 
the  occiput,  in  these  respects  resembling  the  African  genus  Cor- 
dylus  (p.  107),  and  very  Toad-like  proportions,  looking  somewhat 
like  Toads  with  short  tails  ;  and  again  they  decidedly  approximate 
in  appearance  to  the  curious  Moloch  horridus  of  Western  Australia, 
which  belongs  to  the  corresponding  Old  World  family  of  Agan- 
cida;  and,  like  that  strange  reptile,  they  are  slow  of  motion,  and 
perfectly  harmless,  and  they  may  be  handled  with  impunity,  as 
they  never  attempt  to  bite.] 


FLYING  LIZARDS. 
Flying    Lizards  (Draco)  have   the    head  small,  the   nostrils 


Fig.  30. — Flying  Lizard  (Draco  volans). 


in  a  scale,  tubular,  on  the  side  ridge;  tympanum  white 
and  opaque.  They  live  on  trees,  walking  with  agility  with 
their  wings  folded  by  their  sides.  These  wings  they  expand 


FLYING  LIZAEDS.  133 

and  use  as  a  parachute  when  they  throw  themselves  upon  their 
prey  from  the  tops  of  trees  or  other  elevated  places.  But  they 
cannot  move  them  as  birds  do  their  wings.  These  remarkable 
appendages  also  serve  to  drive  away  insects. 

[The  fabulous  Dragons  of  the  ancient  Greeks  were  Serpents  or 
Lizards  with  remarkably  piercing  sight,  which  guarded  treasures 
and  devoured  men.  The  Dragons  of  mediaeval  artists  were  frightful 
and  fantastic  beings,  one  half  Bat  and  the  other  half  quadruped 
or  Serpent.  The  little  Saurians  which  now  bear  the  once 
dreaded  name  are  no  less  interesting,  although  they  are  no  longer 
monsters ;  they  are  distinguished  from  all  other  reptiles  by  a  kind 
of  wing,  which  is  a  large  fold  of  skin,  or  membrane,  on  each  side  of 
the  body.  These  wings  are  entirely  independent  of  the  other 
members,  being  sustained  by  six  false  ribs,  which  do  not  surround 
the  abdomen,  but  rather  extend  horizontally.  They  are  the  only 
existing  examples  of  our  day  of  that  organic  arrangement  which 
distinguished  the  reptiles  known  under  the  name  of  Pterodactyli, 
and  which  belonged  to  the  jurassique  period  of  geology. 

Dr.  Gray  divides  the  Draconina  into  three  genera,  namely  : — 

I.  DracoSj  having  the  ears  naked,  nostrils  below  the  fore  ridge, 
of  which  three  species  are  described — viz.,  I),  volans,  the  Flying 
Lizard  (Fig.  30),  having  the  scales  of  the  back  broad,  generally 
smooth,  those  of  the  throat  granular  ;  wings  grey,  fulvous,  or  brown, 
spotted  and  marbled  with  black,  sometimes  forming  four  or  five 
oblique  black  bands  near  the  outer  edge  j  the  sides  with  a  series  of 
large  keeled  scales  :  the  Timor  Flying  Lizard,  D.  mridis  Timor  ensis 
of  Schlegel ;  and  the  Fringed  Flying  \AzaxdLtD.jimbriatus,  keeled. 

II.  Draconella,  of  which  there  are  two  species,  one_Z>.  Dussumieri, 
having  the  nape  crested ;  and  D.  hcematopogon,  the  Red- throated 
Dragon,  without  crest  on  the  nape. 

III.  DracunculuSy  of  which  five  species  are  described — namely, 
D.  quinquefasciatus,  the  Banded  Flying  Lizard,  nape  not  crested, 
having  a  longitudinal  fold  ;  D.  lineatus,  having  the  nape  crested, 
the   ears   slightly   concave ;   D.  ornatus,  wings  grey,  reticulated 
with  black,  and  having  broad  black  bands  at  the  edge  ;  the  Spotted 
Winged  Dragon,  D.  maculatus,  grey,  and  the  wings  black  spotted ; 
and  D.  spilopterus,  having  the  wing  reddish  near  the  body.] 


134  SAUBIANS. 

GECKOTID./E,  OR  THICK- TONGUED  LIZARDS. 

This  singular  family  of  Saurians  have  the  head  wide  and 
flattened,  the  mouth  wide,  the  nostrils  distant  and  lateral,  the 
eyes  large,  with  short  lids  ;  the  tongue  short,  fleshy,  and  capable 
of  slight  elongation.  The  body  is  thick  and  short,  low  on  the  legs, 
rather  squat  and  depressed,  with  a  belly  trailing  on  the  ground  ; 
back  without  crest.  The  skin  is  defended  by  granular  scales, 
interlaced  with  others  of  a  tubercular  character  ;  they  are  almost 
always  of  a  sombre  colour.  Their  feet  are  short,  wide  apart,  and 
robust ;  they  are  furnished  on  the  upper  part  with  imbricated 
laminae,  which  enable  them  to  adhere  firmly  to  the  surface  of  even 
the  smoothest  bodies,  and  to  run  with  rapidity  in  all  directions  on 
a  plain  surface,  and  even  to  remain  stationary  with  the  back 
downwards,  like  the  common  house  Fly.  More  generally,  however, 
their  hooked  and  retractile  claws,  like  those  of  cats,  assist  them 
in  climbing,  crawling  up  trees,  rocks,  and  even  perpendicular 
walls,  and  'to  remain  there  immovable  for  several  hours.  Their 
flexible  bodies  mould  themselves  into  the  depressions  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  in  which  they  become  scarcely  visible,  their 
natural  colour  blending,  and  being  confounded  with,  the  colour 
of  the  soil.  Their  eye-balls,  which  dilate  and  contract  consider- 
ably, protect  them  from  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  enable 
them,  it  is  thought,  to  see  in  the  dark.  They  are  nocturnal, 
avoid  the  sun's  rays,  and  catch  their  food  in  the  chinks  of  rocks. 
Their  movements  are  rapid,  silent,  and  sudden.  They  hibernate, 
and  are  provided  with  fatty  masses  in  the  groin  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  a  provision  for  their  nourishment  during  that  period. 
Geckos  emit  sounds  which  resemble  the  noise  an  equestrian 
makes  when  he  would  encourage  his  horse  —  smacking  their 
tongues  on  the  palate  to  produce  the  sound.  They  seek  habita- 
tions in  which  they  can  find  food,  and  are  timid,  inoffensive,  and 
quite  incapable  of  inflicting  injury  either  by  their  bite  or  claws  ; 
but  their  repulsive  appearance  makes  them  objects  of  general 
repugnance,  and  has  caused  evil  properties  to  be  attributed  to 
them.  Thus  people  try  to  destroy  them  by  every  possible  means. 
There  are  about  sixteen  known  species  of  Geckos  distributed 
in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  but  chiefly  in  warm  countries. 


GECKOTID^). 


135 


[The  Geckotida  are  divided  into  many  genera,  according  to  the 
construction  of  the  toes.  Dumeril  refers  to  the  comparative  short- 
ness and  general  structure  of  the  feet  and  conformation  of  the 
toes,  which  he  describes  and  figures  in  detail.  The  lower  surface 
and  the  sole  he  states  are  very  dilatable,  and  furnished  with 
small  plates  or  lamellae,  following  or  overlying  each  other  in  a 
mode  which  varies  in  the  different  species.  The  nails  are  some- 
times wanting  on  all  the  toes,  but  more  frequently  hooked,  and 
more  or  less  retractile  ;  the  toes  sometimes  united  at  the  base,  and 
in  Platydactylus  the  extremity  of  the  toe  expands  into  a  fan  shape, 
as  in  the  Tree  Frogs.  The  membranous  and  soft  plates  of  the 
lower  surface  of  the  toes  have  various  modifications  in  different 
genera,  which  have  been  made  the  basis  of  their  arrangement. 
The  Wall  Gecko  is  supposed  by  Gesner  to  be  the  Lizard  spoken 


Fig.  31. — Platydactylus  homalocephalus. 

of  by  Aristophanes  and  Theophrastus,  and  the  Tarentula  of  the 
Italians :  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  the  'AaKaAa/3u>*//x,e 
of  Aristotle  and  the  ancient  Greeks  ;  it  clambered  about  their 
walls  catching  spiders,  on  which  it  fed.  Schneider  has  shown 
it  was  the  Stellio  of  Pliny.  Linnaeus  mentions  three  species,  which 
he  places  with  his  great  genus  Lacerta.  Modern  herpetologists, 
following  Cuvier  and  Dumeril,  class  them  according  to  the  struc- 
ture under  the  several  genera  Ascalabotes,  Piatydactylus,  Hemi- 


136  SAUEIANS. 

dactylus,  Ptyodactylus,  Thecadactylus,  Stenodactytus,  and  Gymno- 
dactylus.~] 

The  Wall  Gecko  (P.  homalocephalus) ,  Fig.  31,  is  of  an  ashy 
grey  colour,  as  if  powdered  on  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  It 
is  white  underneath,  and  inhabits  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean, 
as  well  as  the  countries  which  form  the  basin  of  that  sea,  such  as 
Italy,  France,  Spain,  and  Africa.  They  are  generally  found  in  old 
walls ;  they  are,  however,  sometimes  seen  running  on  those  of 
modern  habitations.  They  feed  on  all  sorts  of  insects,  particu- 
larly on  the  dipterous  insects  and  Arachnidans. 

CHAMELEO.     (LATJRENTI.) 

The  genus  Ckameleo,  of  which  ten  species  are  described  in  the 
British  Museum  Catalogue,  are  natives  of  Africa  and  Asia  and 
naturalised  in  Southern  Europe.  They  live  on  trees,  clinging  to  the 
branches  by  their  feet  and  prehensile  tails ;  they  move  slowly  and 
with  great  caution,  feeding  upon  insects,  which  they  catch  with 
singular  dexterity  by  the  rapid  elongation  of  their  tongue,  which 
is  viscid  at  the  tip. 

Certain  groundless  metaphors,  deeply  rooted  in  the  popular 
mind,  have  singularly  distorted  the  truth  in  respect  to  these 
reptiles.  It  is  commonly  believed  that  the  Chameleon  often 
changes  its  shape,  that  it  has  no  fixed  colour  belonging  to  itself, 
but  takes  that  of  all  objects  which  it  approaches.  This  singular 
idea  has  descended  from  very  ancient  times.  According  to  the 
reports  of  Theophrastus  and  Plutarch,  the  Chameleon  takes  all 
colours  in  turn  but  white;  according  to  Aristotle  it  changes 
colour  all  over  the  body ;  but  -ZElian  seems  to  have  had  views  more 
in  accordance  with  those  of  modern  observers,  for  he  says  when  it 
takes  other  colours  than  grey  and  disguises  itself,  it  covers  only 
certain  parts  of  the  body  with  them.  Altogether  the  ancients 
made  the  Chameleon  a  very  fantastic  animal ;  hence  in  the  familiar 
comparisons  of  literature  these  fabulous  beings  serve  as  a  type  to 
designate  uncertain  principles ;  to  paint  fawning  men,  who  have 
neither  character  nor  individuality  of  their  own,  but  who  bend 
themselves  to  the  will  and  adopt  the  opinions  of  others.  Putting 
aside  the  imaginary  attributes  accorded  to  the  Chameleon  by  the 
fancies  of  the  ancients,  and  painting  them  such  as  they  are,  we 


CHAMELEONS.  137 

still  see  in  them  animals  most  worthy  of  observation  and  highly 
interesting  to  the  naturalist,  as  well  for  the  singular  formation 
of  different  parts  of  their  bodies  as  for  their  remarkable  habits, 
and  even  for  peculiarities  which  have  given  some  sanction  to  the 
errors  and  prejudices  to  which  we  have  alluded. 

Chameleons  have  compressed  bodies ;  the  back  round  and  pro- 
jecting, or  rather  pyramidal ;  the  skin  granulated ;  the  head 
angular,  with  salient  occiput  resting  on  a  short  and  thick  neck ; 
their  legs  are  slender ;  the  hind,  as  well  as  the  fore  toes  are  five ; 
the  tail  prehensile  and  round.  The  eyes  are  very  large  and 
protruding,  their  globes  covered  by  a  single  shagreen-like  eyelid, 
which  the  animal  can  dilate  or  contract  at  will,  but  which 
leaves  little  liberty  to  a  small  hole  pierced  at  the  centre,  through 
which  a  quick  and  rather  brilliant  eye-ball  is  perceived.  The 
eyes,  in  the  Chameleon,  are  thus  completely  enveloped,  as  if 
they  were  too  delicate  to  sustain  any  glaring  light ;  but  this 
is  not  all — their  eyes  have  a  singular  mobility.  By  certain 
special  muscular  arrangements  they  have  the  power  to  direct 
them  on  objects  either  together  or  separate.  Sometimes  they  turn 
their  eyes  in  such  a  manner  that  one  eye  looks  back  and  the 
other  forward.  With  one  eye  they  can  see  objects  above  them, 
while  with  the  other  they  can  see  those  situated  below.  It  is 
a  common  saying  in  France,  applied  to  the  Chameleon,  "that 
it  could  look  into  Champagne  and  see  Picardy  in  flames." 

The  vermiform  and  retractile  tongue  is  also  a  most  singular 
organ.  It  is  cylindrical,  about  six  inches  long,  terminating 
in  a  fleshy,  dilatable,  and  somewhat  tubular  tip,  which  is  covered 
with  a  glutinous  secretion,  by  the  aid  of  which  it  seizes  its 
insect  food,  and  draws  it  towards  its  mouth.  The  feet  have 
five  very  long  and  almost  equal  strong  and  hooked  claws,  but 
the  skin  of  the  legs  extends  to  the  end  of  these  toes,  and 
unites  them  in  a  very  peculiar  manner.  Not  only  is  this  skin 
attached  to  each  of  the  toes,  but  it  envelops  them,  and  forms, 
as  it  were,  two  bundles, — the  one  of  three  fingers,  and  the  other 
of  two.  From  this  structure  one  can  anticipate  the  extreme  differ- 
ence which  exists  between  the  habits  of  Chameleons  and  those  of 
Lizards.  These  two  bundles  of  long  toes  are  placed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  enable  them  to  seize  the  branches  easily  on  which 


138  SAUEIANS. 

they  love  to  perch ;  they  can   grasp  these  branches  by  holding 
on  with  one  bundle  of  fingers  before,  and  the  other  behind,  in  the 
same  manner  as  Woodpeckers,  Cuckoos,  and  Parrots.    Chameleons 
are  better  able  to  preserve  their  equilibrium  upon  trees  than  upon 
the  ground;    consequently  they  are   more  often  seen   in   those 
aerial  domiciles.     Besides,  their  long  and  strong  prehensile  tail 
serves  them  as  a  fifth  limb.     They  swing  themselves  about  like 
monkeys,  grasping  the  small  branches,   and  thus  saving  them- 
selves from  falling.     Moreover,  they  are  cautious,  moving  at  all 
times   very   slowly   when    going    from  one   branch  to  another. 
"Walking  becomes   much  more  difficult  for  them  when  they  rest 
upon  a  level  surface — groping  their  way  as  they  advance,  placing 
their  feet  upon  the  earth,  one  after  the  other,  with  the  greatest 
circumspection.      They   also    steady  themselves   on   the   ground 
by  the  aid  of  their  tail.     In  their  walk   they  display  a  certain 
gravity    which    contrasts   with    their   diminutive  size   and    the 
agility  which  might  be  expected  from  them.    Even  when  perched 
upon  a  tree    their    movements    exhibit  a  slowness  and   delibe- 
ration   that  one  would  be   inclined  to  say   was  affected.     It   is 
true  that  the  arrangement  of  their  eyes,  and  the  rapid  move- 
ments of   their  tongue,  render  personal  activity  superfluous  in 
their  search  for  food.     They  can  see  their  prey  and  their  enemies 
from  a  great  distance,   and  in  all  directions.     The  latter   they 
readily  avoid.     As    to  their  prey,  when  about  to  seize  it,   the 
Chameleon  rolls  round  its  extraordinary  eye-balls  so  as  to  bring 
them  to  bear  on  the  devoted  object.     As  soon  as  it  arrives  within 
range  of  the  tongue,  that  organ  is  projected  with  unerring  pre- 
cision, returning  into  the  mouth  with  the  prey  adhering  to  the 
viscous  tip.     This  tongue  they  can  extend  to  a  length  sometimes 
surpassing    that  of   their    body.     The   skin   of   the    Chameleon 
does  not  adhere  to  the  muscles  everywhere ;  some  spaces  are  left 
free,  into  which  the  air  penetrates,  causing  the  skin  to  heave  and 
swell ;  this  mechanism  is  voluntary,  the  animal  having  the  power 
of  inflating  or  relaxing  it  at  pleasure.     When  this  great  living 
bladder  is  emptied,  the  animal  may  be  said  to  resemble  a   bag 
of  gold-beaters'  skin  filled  with  bones.     Chameleons  exhibit  great 
variation   in  their  colours ;  that  is  to  say,  they  may  be  almost 
white,  sometimes  yellowish,  at  other  times  green,   reddish,   and 


CHAMELEONS.  139 

even  black,  either  in  portions,  or  all  over  their  bodies.  These 
changes  of  colour  were  for  a  long  time  attributed  to  the  greater 
or  less  distention  of  the  vast  lungs  they  possess,  and  to  the 
corresponding  modifications  in  the  quantity  of  blood  sent  to  the 
skin ;  but  this  explanation  is  now  abandoned.  According  to 
Mr.  Milne  Edwards,  the  cause  of  these  variations  of  colour  lie 
in  the  peculiar  structure  of  their  skin,  in  which  there  exists  two 
layers  of  membranous  pigment,  placed  the  one  above  the  other, 
but  disposed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  appear  simultaneously  under 
the  cuticle,  and  at  other  times  so  that  the  one  hides  the  other. 
Again,  occasionally  the  cuticle  is  hidden  under  the  superficial 
pigment. 

[Sixteen  or  seventeen  species  of  Chameleon  are  described  in  the 
British  Museum  Catalogue. 

I.  Having  an  erect  fin  on  the  back,  the  belly  crested ;  which 
includes  the  Fringed  Chameleon,  C.  cristatus,  a  native  of  Fer- 
nando Po. 

II.  Having  the  back  high,  and   compressed   belly  and   sides, 
with   a   toothed  crest ;    including    the   Side-crested   Chameleon, 
C.  laterales,  a  native  of  Madagascar. 

III.  The   back   and  belly  having  a   toothed   crest,    the   sides 
simple,   the  scales   small  and  equal,   muzzle  simple;    including 
the  Common  Chameleon,  C.  vulgaris,  with  many  synonyms.     It 
is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  is  the  recognised  type  of  the  family 
(Fig.    32),  and   the  one   most   commonly  brought   to   England. 
There  are  probably  two  varieties, — one  from  North  Africa,  which 
is   also  found  in  Sicily  and  the  South  of  Spain ;  the  other,  the 
East  Indian  variety — C.    Senegalensis,  the   Senegal  Chameleon, 
a    native  of  West  Africa  ;    C.  arpelis,  from  Ashantee  and    Ga- 
boon ;    C.    verrucosus,    a   native   of    Bourbon   and   Madagascar ; 
the  Rhinoceros  Chameleon,  C.  rhinoceroceratus,  also  from  Mada- 
gascar. 

IV.  Having  a  toothed   crest  on  the  back,  with  the  belly  and 
sides  simple,  the  chin  and  muzzle  simple ;    including  C.  tuber- 
culiferus,  a  native  of  South  Africa ;    C.  cucullatus,  the  Hooded 
Chameleon,  a  native  of  Madagascar ;   C.  nasutus,  having  the  chin 
simple,  and  the  muzzle  compressed,  and   C.  bifurcus,  having  the 
muzzle   in  the  male   forked — both   natives   of  Madagascar ;    C. 


140 


SAURIANS. 


Tigris,  Seychille  Islands ;    C.  ventralis,  from  South.  Africa,  and 
C.  pumilus,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Y.  Having  back  and  belly  without  crest ;  including    C.  Par- 


F 


Fig.  32. — Chameleo  vulgaris. 


sonii,  a  native  of  Madagascar ;  and  C.  Owenii,  the  Three-horned 
Chameleon,  from  Fernando  Po,  and  C.  Brookesianus,  an  adult 
species,  from  S.  W.  Brookes's  collection. 


EMYDOSAURIANS 

Have  the  head  large,  covered  with  a  thick  skin,  ears  closed  with 
two  valves,  gape  very  wide,  tongue  short,  jaws  with  a  single  series 
of  cone-shaped  teeth  inserted  in  sockets  ;  back  with  a  hard  disc 
formed  of  a  longitudinal  series  of  square  keeled  plates  of  hard 
bony  consistence  embedded  in  the  skin ;  the  under  surface  covered 
with  smooth  thin  square  plates ;  legs  short,  feet  webbed,  with 
four  to  five  toes,  the  three  inner  toes  of  each  foot  only  armed  with 
claws. 

They  are  divided  into  two  groups : — 

I.  Crocodilidce,  having  the  lower  canines  fitting  into  a  notch 
in  the  edge  of  the  upper  jaw. 

II.  Alligatorida,  having  the  canines  fitting  into  a  pit  in  the 
upper  jaw.] 


CKOCODILES,  141 


CROCODILES. 

The  Shielded  Saurians,  as  Dumeril  designates  the  largest  of 
living  species  of  that  order  of  reptiles,  have  the  body  depressed, 
elongated,  and  protected  on  the  back  with  a  solid  carinated 
shield  or  buckler  ;  the  tail  longer  than  the  trunk,  compressed 
laterally,  annulated  and  crested  above ;  having  four  very  short 
feet ;  the  toes  of  the  posterior  feet  united,  or  web-footed,  each  foot 
having  three  claws  only;  head  depressed  and  elongated  into  a 
muzzle  ;  the  gape  of  the  mouth  extending  back  beyond  the  skull ; 
tongue  fleshy,  adherent ;  teeth  conical,  simple,  hollowed  at  the  base 
or  towards  the  root,  unequal  in  length,  and  in  a  single  row.  Such 
is  a  brief  summary  of  the  family  by  Dumeril  and  Bibron. 

If  the  Eagle  is  the  king  of  the  air,  the  Tiger  and  the  Lion  the 
tyrants  of  the  forests,  and  the  Whale  the  monarch  of  the  deep, 
the  Crocodile  has  for  the  exercise  of  his  undisputed  control  the 
maritime  shores  of  tropical  seas  and  the  borders  of  tropical  rivers. 
Living  on  the  confines  of  land  and  water,  this  formidable  rep- 
tile is  at  all  times  the  scourge  of  those  human  beings  who  are 
compelled  to  reside  near  its  haunts.  Much  larger  than  the  Tiger, 
Lion,  or  Eagle,  the  Crocodile  surpasses  all  terrestrial  animals, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Elephant,  Hippopotamus,  and  some 
Serpents,  in  its  power  of  destruction. 

Crocodiles  have  the  head  depressed  and  elongated  into  a  muzzle, 
in  the  front  of  which  the  nostrils  are  seen  close  to  a  fleshy  tuber- 
cule,  and  furnished  with  movable  valves.  The  mouth  opens  up  to 
the  ears  ;  the  jaws  are  of  commensurate  length,  and  are  armed,  as 
we  have  seen,  with  conical-pointed  teeth,  bent  back,  and  disposed 
in  such  a  manner  that  when  the  mouth  is  closed  they  pass  one 
under  the  other.  These  teeth  are  implanted  in  a  single  row,  and 
continually  maintained  in  a  good  condition  by  an  organic  system 
which  ensures  their  immediate  reparation.  In  short,  each  tooth  is 
hollowed  at  the  base  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  the  cell  or  sheath 
of  another  tooth  of  a  larger  calibre.  The  new  tooth,  which  presses 
on,  exercises  a  sort  of  absorption  upon  the  base  of  the  old  hollow 
tooth,  so  that  the  first  is  developed  while  the  second  is  decaying. 
In  some  species  the  front  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  so  long  and 


142  SAUEIANS. 

sharp  that  they  perforate  the  edge  of  the  upper  jaw  and  appear 
above  the  muzzle  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  The  lower  jaw  alone 
is  movable,  and  that  only  in  a  downward  movement.  The  mouth  is 
without  lips,  consequently,  whether  walking  or  swimming,  the 
teeth  of  Crocodiles  are  always  visible. 

This  formidable  conformation  gives  to  the  Crocodile  an  aspect 
at  once  terrible  and  alarming,  which  is  increased  by  two  wicked- 
looking  eyes  placed  obliquely  and  close  together,  surmounted  by  a 
kind  of  eyebrow.  The  tail  of  these  animals  is  very  long,  as  thick 
as  the  body  at  the  junction,  and  in  shape  it  is  flat,  like  an  oar ; 
this  enables  them  to  steer  through  the  water  like  a  fish,  and  to  swim 
with  rapidity.  They  have  four  short  legs,  of  which  the  hinder 
have  toes,  united  by  a  natatory  membrane,  and  only  three  claws 
to  each  foot.  The  skin  is  coriaceous,  thick,  and  resistant ;  being 
also  protected  by  very  thick  knots  intermingled  with  plates  of 
different  size,  according  to  the  parts  of  the  body  they  protect.  On 
the  skull  and  face  the  skin  adheres  closely  to  the  bone,  and 
there  is  no  trace  of  scales. 

Nature  has  provided  for  the  safety  of  these  animals  by  covering 
them  with  a  cuirass,  the  resistance  of  which  is  proof  against 
almost  everything.  Thus  the  scales  which  defend  the  back  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  tail  are  square,  and  form  hard  transversal 
bands  possessed  of  great  flexibility,  which  prevents  them  from 
breaking.  Down  the  centre  of  the  back  there  is  a  hard  crest, 
which  adds  to  the  strength  of  their  armour.  This  cuirass  is  in 
many  points  proof  against  a  bullet  from  a  gun.  The  plates 
which  cover  the  belly,  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  neck,  tail,  and 
legs  are  also  arranged  in  transversal  bands,  but  less  hard,  and 
without  crests.  It  is  at  these  weaker  and  consequently  vulnerable 
parts  that  those  inhabitants  of  the  waters  which  are  enemies  to 
Crocodiles  manage  to  attack  them  successfully. 

The  general  colour  of  the  Crocodile  is  a  dullish  brown,  with 
sometimes  a  shade  of  green  along  the  back ;  the  head  and  the 
sides  are  marked  with  green,  or  at  least  they  have  a  greenish 
tint,  with  blackish  spots ;  the  under  part  of  the  legs  and  belly 
are  of  a  yellowish  grey.  All  these  shades,  however,  vary  with 
age  and  sex,  and  the  nature  of  the  water  in  which  the  animals 
live. 


CROCODILES.  143 

Crocodiles  are  oviparous,  and  their  eggs  are  provided  with 
resistant  shells.  These  eggs  are  deposited  by  the  female  in 
some  secluded  place  in  the  sand  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and 
are  hatched  simply  by  the  ambient  heat,  without  any  assistance 
from  the  mother.  The  female  Crocodiles  of  the  Nile  deposit  their 
eggs  where  the  solar  heat  soon  brings  them  to  maturity.  In 
certain  countries,  such  as  the  neighbourhood  of  Cayenne  and 
Surinam,  the  eggs  are  buried  under  a  kind  of  mound  which  the 
Ali gators  raise  in  damp  places  by  gathering  together  leaves  and 
herbaceous  stems.  This  vegetable  debris  undergoes  a  kind  of  fer- 
mentation, the  result  of  which  is  an  increase  of  temperature,  which, 
joined  to  that  of  the  atmosphere,  produces  the  desired  result. 

Lacepede  describes  an  egg  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History 
in  Paris,  which  was  laid  by  a  Crocodile  fourteen  feet  in  length, 
which  was  killed  in  Upper  Egypt.  This  egg  is  only  two  inches 
and  five  lines  in  its  greatest  diameter ;  in  its  least  diameter 
it  is  one  inch  and  eleven  lines.  It  is  oval  and  whitish.  Its 
shell  is  cretaceous  in  substance,  like  the  eggs  of  birds,  but 
not  so  hard.  At  the  time  of  their  birth  the  little  Crocodiles 
are  only  about  six  inches  in  length,  but  their  growth  is  very 
rapid.  They  abound  in  large  rivers  in  the  tropics,  and  in 
marshy  places  near  their  banks.  They  often  come  on  shore,  for 
they  are  amphibious.  In  the  night  they  watch  for  their  prey. 
They  feed  exclusively  on  flesh — that  is  to  say  on  fish,  small 
Mammalians,  aquatic  birds,  and  reptiles.  When  they  have  seized 
a  large  object  they  drag  it  under  the  water,  where  it  soon 
dies  by  asphyxia ;  there  they  leave  it  to  macerate,  when  they  eat 
it  by  instalments.  In  this  manner  men  are  sometimes  carried 
away  by  Crocodiles,  but  it  is  contrary  to  the  habits  of  the  animal  to 
suppose  that  they  are  devoured  immediately.  When  a  Crocodile 
has  succeeded  in  seizing  a  negro,  it  does  not  devour  him  till 
the  body  becomes  decomposed,  when  it  can  tear  it  to  pieces  with 
greater  facility. 

From  the  general  structure  of  their  bony  framework  it  is  diffi- 
cult for  Crocodiles  to  turn  round  or  move  otherwise  than  for- 
ward. This  circumstance  renders  it  easy  to  escape  their  pursuit. 
When  chased  by  a  Crocodile,  it  can  be  avoided  by  describing  a 
circle,  or  running  in  a  succession  of  curves.  Upon  the  banks 


ALLIGATOEID^E.  145 

of  the  Lake  of  Nicaragua,  in  America,  an  Englishman  was  once  pur- 
sued by  an  Alligator  which  had  surprised  him  when  on  its  margin. 
The  animal  was  gaining  upon  him  rapidly,  when  some  Spaniards 
who  witnessed  the  scene  cried  out  to  him  to  run  round  it.  Thus 
fortunately  warned  the  pursued  dodged  the  Alligator,  and  escaped 
from  his  dangerous  enemy  (Fig.  33). 

[No  specimens  of  the  Crocodilida  have  been  found  in  Europe, 
and  until  very  recently  none  had  been  found  in  Australia,  but  they 
are  very  common  in  the  new  colony  of  Queensland,  an  Alligator 
twenty  feet  long  having  been  shot  on  the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie 
river,  which  was  afterwards  exhibited  at  Rockhampton.  Croco- 
diles, properly  so  called,  are  found  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  America. 
The  Gavials  seem  to  be  limited  to  the  Ganges  and  other  large 
rivers  in  India.  Besides  the  Gavial,  Asia  produces  three  other 
species,  namely,  C.  vulgaris,  C.  galeatus,  and  C.  bifurcatus.  Of 
the  first,  Siam  is  the  chief  locality  ;  the  others  are  found  in  the 
rivers  which  debouch  into  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Ganges. 

THE  ALLIGATOKIDJE 

Include  the  Jacares,  Alligators,  and  Caimans. 

The  Jacares  have  the  head  oblong  and  depressed,  with  a  ridge 
across  the  face  in  front  of  the  eyes  ;  teeth  unequal,  canines  of  the 
lower  jaw  fitting  into  a  pit  in  the  upper  jaw  ;  toes  only  partially 
webbed,  eyelids  fleshy,  nostrils  separated  by  a  cartilage.  Five 
species  are  described — namely,  J.  jissipes,  from  Tropical  America, 
six  feet  in  length ;  J".  sclerops,  from  the  Brazils ;  J.  Nigra,  also 
from  the  Brazils  ;  J.  punctulatus,  with  triangular  oblong  head, 
muzzle  elongated,  thin  and  flat,  with  a  rounded  point  in  front, 
and  a  slight  enlargement  behind  the  nostrils ;  J.  vallefrons,  differ- 
ing slightly  from  the  above — both  natives  of  the  Brazils. 

Alligators  have  the  jaws  oblong,  much  depressed,  broad  and 
nearly  parallel ;  forehead  with  a  small  longitudinal  ridge  between 
the  orbits  ;  feet  fringed,  toes  half  webbed,  the  outer  toes  free ; 
nostrils  separated  by  a  bony  septum  rising  from  the  upper  edge, 
muzzle  lengthening  with  age.  One  species  only  is  known,  which 
is  a  native  of  North  America ;  it  attains  a  length  of  six  to  seven 
feet,  and  is  known  also  as  Crocodilus  Mississipensis. 

L 


146  SAUEIANS. 

The  Caimans  have  the  jaws  oblong,  depressed,  rounded,  and 
swollen  at  the  end,  without  frontal  ridges  or  maxillary  pits  ; 
teeth  unequal,  the  lower  canines  fitting  into  pits  in  the  upper 
jaw ;  toes  wehbed.  There  are  three  species  described — C.  trigo- 
natus,  C.  palpebrosus,  and  C.  goddeceps,  all  natives  of  Tropical 
America. 

The  Jacares,  Alligators,  and  Caimans  are  natives  of  America, 
which  country  is  fruitful  in  other  species  of  the  family.  C. 
acutus  is  also  found  in  Martinique  and  San  Domingo  ;  C.  rhom- 
bifor,  at  Cuba ;  A.  palpebrosus,  A.  sclerops,  A.  punctulatus,  and 
A.  cynocephalus  are  natives  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Ame- 
rican Continent ;  and  A.  lucius  is  found  in  the  north.] 

The  principal  characteristics  of  the  American  Crocodile  are 
a  head  one-third  its  length,  and  a  very  short  muzzle  ;  teeth 
unequal  in  shape  and  size,  the  fourth  lower  tooth  being  buried 
in  the  upper  jaw  when  the  mouth  is  closed ;  the  first  teeth  of 
the  lower  jaw  piercing  the  upper  at  a  certain  age,  so  as  to  appear 
through  the  muzzle  when  closed.  The  hinder  legs  and  feet 
rounded,  having  neither  crest  nor  indentation  on  their  edges; 
the  intervals  of  the  toes  more  than  half  covered  with  a  short 
membrane,  forming  semi-palmated  feet. 

It  is  generally  admitted,  as  we  have  stated  above,  that  there  are 
five  species  of  this  genera,  all  exclusively  American,  the  type  of 
which  is  the  Alligator,  or  Caiman.  A.  Mississipensis  (Gray)  belongs 
properly  to  North  America,  through  the  whole  southern  extent  of 
which  it  is  found.  They  are  gregarious,  living  together  in  large 
herds  in  the  Mississippi  and  its  southern  tributaries ;  they  are  also 
found  in  the  lakes  and  marshes  of  Louisiana,  Carolina,  and  even  as 
far  north  as  thirty  degrees  of  north  latitude.  Alligators  do  not  ap- 
pear to  leave  fresh  water.  During  the  winter  season  they  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud  of  the  marshes,  and  await  in  a  state  of  torpor  the 
return  of  spring,  which  is  the  signal  of  their  restoration  to  activity. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Bayou  Sarah,  on  the  Mississippi,  flats  of 
lakes  and  marshes  stretch  away  to  a  vast  extent  on  either  bank ; 
every  year  these  reservoirs  are  flooded  by  the  overflow  of  the 
river,  when  they  are  visited  by  myriads  of  fishes.  The  heat  soon 
partly  dries  up  these  lakes,  leaving  only  about  two  feet  deep  of 
water,  thus  displaying  a  vast  amount  of  prey  ready  prepared  for 


THE  CAIMAN.  147 

the  shore  birds  and  Crocodiles.  Millions  of  ibis,  herons,  cranes, 
and  cormorants  wade  into  the  water  in  pursuit  of  these  fish. 
In  the  deepest  portions  vast  quantities  of  these  imprisoned  fish 
accumulate,  and  these  parts  are  known  in  the  country  as  the  Alli- 
gators' holes.  Thither  these  reptiles  crowd,  pressing  one  against 
the  other,  and  they  soon  thoroughly  clear  it  of  the  fish  which 
lately  were  in  such  dense  crowds.  As  evaporation  proceeds  and  the 
marshes  gradually  dry  up,  the  fish  are  more  and  more  exposed  to 
their  voracious  enemies.  The  Alligators  pursue  and  devour  them 
in  the  water,  whilst  the  ibis  destroys  those  which  seek  the  banks 
for  refuge.  Alligators  fish  chiefly  during  the  night.  In  the 
hours  of  darkness  and  obscurity  they  assemble  in  large  herds, 
chase  the  fish  before  them,  driving  them  into  some  retired  creek, 
where  they  rejoice  their  hearts  at  the  expense  of  the  unfortunate 
finny  tribes,  which  they  force  into  their  widely  opened  mouths  by 
a  lateral  movement  of  their  tails.  On  these  occasions  the  clash- 
ing of  their  jaws  may  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  a  mile. 
Alligators  are  found  by  thousands  in  Mexican  waters,  and  nearly 
all  North  American  rivers  to  the  south  of  them.  In  the  beautiful 
transparent  waters  of  Lake  Claro  they  abound,  and  are  without 
difficulty  seen  by  the  naked  human  eye.  Here  they  are  so  closely 
pressed  one  against  the  other  that  they  resemble  a  raft  of  trees 
recently  felled,  and  the  resemblance  is  further  increased  by  the 
colour  of  their  backs  and  the  bark  of  a  newly-felled  tree  being 
identical.  In  this  united  and  immovable  condition,  while  waiting 
for  their  prey,  the  approach  of  a  boat  is  disregarded ;  but  they 
rush  with  avidity  at  everything  animate  which  either  falls  or  is 
thrown  into  the  lake.  Many  children  of  poor  negro  women 
become  a  prey  to  the  Caiman  in  this  locality.  They  rarely,  how- 
ever, pursue  men,  yet  they  would  not  hesitate  to  devour  them  if 
their  imprudence  has  placed  them  close  to  their  terrible  jaws. 

The  natives  of  Mexico  hunt  the  Caiman.  When  they  meet  an 
isolated  individual  asleep,  they  throw  a  lasso  round  its  body,  and 
when  secured,  gag  it.  After  this  operation,  the  victim's  career 
is  terminated  by  hammering  on  his  head.  There  is  another  means 
which  the  Indians  use  to  capture  the  Caiman.  They  provide  them- 
selves with  four  pieces  of  hard  wood  about  a  foot  long,  and  as  thick 
as  a  man's  fingerr  and  pointed  at  each  end ;  round  these  they  tie 

L2 


148  SAUEIANS. 

a  cord  in  such  a  manner  that,  supposing  the  cord  to  be  an  arrow, 
the  four  sticks  would  form  the  head  of  it.  They  then  fasten  the 
other  end  of  the  cord  round  a  tree,  and  bait  with  meat.  This 
device  is  thrown  into  the  water.  When  the  Caiman  snaps  at  the 
prey  the  points  of  the  hook,  on  straining  on  the  line,  penetrate 
into  its  flesh.  Having  waited  till  the  Alligator  is  dead,  it  is  drawn 
from  the  water,  when  the  captors  further  gratify  their  dislike  and 
spirit  of  revenge  by  breaking  its  skull  with  stones  and  sticks. 

Another  method  of  capturing  Alligators  is  practised  by  the 
residents  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  giant  river  Orinoco.  A  tree 
is  bent  (generally  a  bamboo  is  selected  from  its  elasticity)  till  the 
top  is  brought  down  to  the  butt,  a  bait  is  then  placed  on  a  sharp 
hook,  the  line  attached  to  it  being  fastened  securely  to  the  small 
end  of  the  bent  tree,  which  is  caused  to  relax  its  position  by  an 
ingenious  piece  of  mechanism  which  gives  way  the  moment  the 
least  strain  is  felt  upon  the  line ;  the  tree-point  becoming  thus 
released,  straightens  itself  with  great  velocity,  and  drags  the 
victim  from  the  water. 

Frequently  the  Alligator,  from  constant  pursuit  and  interrup- 
tion, becomes  excessively  wary  and  difficult  to  destroy ;  when 
such  is  the  case,  a  live  bait  is  sometimes  successfully  employed. 
For  instance,  a  Dog  with  a  hook  tied  to  his  back  is  taken  in  a 
canoe  and  dropped  in  the  water ;  it  is  seldom  the  unfortunate  cur 
is  permitted  to  swim  far  before  being  seized. 

It  is  currently  believed  that  the  Alligator  prefers  dog-flesh  to 
all  others.  The  negroes  on  the  plantations  in  the  South- "Western 
States  of  America,  by  imitating  the  barking  of  a  dog,  frequently 
lure  these  reptiles  from  their  hiding-places,  when  a  well-directed 
bullet  terminates  their  career. 

Alligators  are  very  voracious,  but,  like  Serpents  and  Turtles, 
they  can  live  a  long  time  without  nourishment.  In  Brown's 
"  Natural  History  of  Jamaica,"  he  asserts  that  he  has  known  the 
Caiman  to  live  several  months  without  food.  The  following 
experiments  have  been  tried  in  that  island : — The  mouth  of  an 
Alligator  was  muzzled  by  a  strong  cord,  it  was  then  thrown 
into  a  reservoir  of  water.  Thus  these  animals  lived  a  consider- 
able time.  They  were  seen  to  rise  occasionally  to  the  surface 
of  the  water,  until  death  came  to  their  rescue.  Let  us  add  to 


THE  ALLIGATOR. 


149 


this,  that  Crocodiles  bred  in  captivity  in  the  menagerie  of  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  at  Paris,  sometimes  live  for  several 
months  without  eating. 

The  female  Alligator  takes  more  care  of  her  young  than  the 


Fig.  34.— Alligator  (Crocodilus  lucius). 

female  Crocodile,  properly  so  called.  She  conducts  them  to  the 
water,  and  in  the  slimy  mud  she  disgorges  her  half-digested  food 
for  their  nourishment. 

The  TRUE  CROCODILES  are  indigenous  to  Africa,  but  they  are 
found  also  in  Manilla  and  India.  Their  length  of  head  is  almost 
double  its  breadth.  The  fourth  tooth  of  the  lower  jaw  is  the 
longest  and  largest  of  all,  and  passes  into  an  indentation  hollowed 
out  in  the  edge  of  the  upper  jaw,  becoming  visible  on  the  outside. 
The  hind  feet  have  on  their  external  edge  a  dentated  crest,  and 
the  interstices  of  their  toes,  externally,  are  palmated. 

The  principal  type  is  the  Common  Crocodile,  C.  vulgaris,  which 
sometimes  attains  the  length  of  nine  or  ten  feet.  The  upper  part 
of  the  body  of  these  reptiles  is  of  an  olive  green  colour  spotted  with 


150  SAUEIANS. 

black,  and  marbled  upon  the  head  and  neck  with  the  same  colour, 
also  the  back  and  tail ;  two  or  three  broad,  oblique  black  bands 
are  visible  upon  the  flanks  of  the  under  part  of  the  body,  which  is 
of  a  yellowish  green.  Crocodiles  abound  in  Africa.  Formerly 
they  were  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Nile,  but  lately  it  is  said  that 
(7.  vulgaris  is  no  longer  to  be  met  with  in  the  Delta,  but  that  it 
exists  in  great  numbers  in  the  Thebaid  and  in  the  Upper  Nile. 
They  are  also  found  in  the  rivers  Senegal  and  Niger,  in  Caffraria, 
and  in  Madagascar.  Most  authors  give  them  the  name  of  Croco- 
diles of  the  Nile.  This  species  are  found  also  in  India. 

The  Crocodile  was  considered  a  sacred  animal  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  In  ruins  of  temples  mummies  of  Crocodiles  are  still 
found  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation.  The  Romans  introduced 
living  Crocodiles  at  the  national  games  in  the  Colosseum.  At  first 
only  five  were  imported  under  the  sedileship  of  Scaurus.  Under 
the  Emperor  Augustus  thirty- six  were  killed  in  the  Circus  of 
Flaminius.  Several  ancient  medals  represent  this  reptile,  the 
body  of  which  perfectly  resembles  that  which  now  lives  in  the 
waters  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  There  is  a  truly  wonderful 
fact  in  the  natural  history  of  the  Crocodile.  Listen  to  what 
Herodotus,  the  father  of  history,  tells  us  with  regard  to  it : — 
"  "When  the  Crocodile  takes  his  food  in  the  Nile,  the  interior  of 
its  mouth  is  always  covered  with  bdella  (flies).  All  birds,  with  one 
single  exception,  flee  from  the  Crocodile ;  but  this  one,  the  Nile  Bird, 
TrockyluSy  far  from  avoiding  it,  flies  towards  the  reptile  with 
the  greatest  eagerness,  and  renders  it  a  very  essential  service. 
Every  time  the  Crocodile  goes  on  shore  to  sleep,  and  at  the  moment 
when  it  lies  extended  with  open  jaws,  the  Nile  Bird  enters  the 
mouth  of  the  terrible  animal  and  delivers  it  from  the  bdella  which 
it  finds  there  ;  the  Crocodile  shows  its  recognition  of  the  service, 
and  never  harms  the  bird." 

This  fact,  reported  by  Herodotus,  was  long  considered  to  be  a 
fable,  but  the  naturalist,  Etienne  Geoffrey  Saint- Hilaire,  who 
formed  part  of  the  commission  that  General  Bonaparte  took  with 
him  in  his  expedition  into  Egypt,  had  on  several  occasions  oppor- 
tunities of  proving  the  truth  of  the  historian's  narrative. 

In  a  memoir  read  to  the  Academy  of  Science  on  the  28th 
of  January,  1828,  he  says,  "It  is  perfectly  true  that  there 


THE  CROCODILE.  lol 

exists  a  little  bird  which,  flies  about,  perpetually  seeking,  even  in 
the  mouth  of  the  Crocodile,  the  insects  which  form  the  principal 
part  of  its  nourishment."  This  bird,  which  Geoffroy  Saint- 
Hilaire  recognised  as  the  Charadrius  ^Egyptius  of  ornithologists, 
is  like  a  Plover.  The  bdella,  which  thus  torment  the  Croco- 
diles, and  even  excite  them  to  madness,  are  no  other  than  our 
European  gnats.  Myriads  of  these  insects  haunt  the  banks  of 
the  Nile,  and  when  these  giants  of  its  waters  repose  on  its  margin, 
warming  themselves  in  the  sun,  they  become  the  prey  of  these  in- 
significant pigmies.  It  is  like  the  war  between  the  Lion  and  the 
Mouse,  described  by  La  Fontaine.  The  bdella  fly  into  the  Croco- 
diles' mouths  in  such  numbers  that  they  cover  the  entire  surface 
of  the  palate,  and  form  a  brownish  crust.  These  little  pests 
pierce  the  tongues  of  the  reptiles  with  their  stings.  It  is  then 
that  this  bird  comes  into  the  mouth  of  the  monster  to  catch 
them,  and  deliver  it  from  such  innumerable  enemies.  The 
Crocodile  with  one  bite  could  easily  destroy  the  bird,  but  he 
knows  too  well  what  he  owes  to  this  friend  to  do  it  an  injury. 
Crocodiles  of  the  Nile  are  more  voracious  than  the  American 
Alligators.  Hasselquist  asserts  that  in  Upper  Egypt  they  often 
devour  women  who  come  to  draw  water  from  the  Nile,  as  well  as 
children  playing  upon  its  banks.  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire  says, 
that  in  the  Thebaid  they  often  met  with  Arabs  wanting  an  arm 
or  leg,  who  accused  Crocodiles  of  this  mutilation.  Sir  Samuel 
Baker  also  mentions,  in  his  late  work  on  the  Nile  and  its  tribu- 
taries, the  desire  of  these  amphibia  for  human  flesh,  and  the  dread 
they  are  held  in  by  the  natives.  Livingstone,  the  celebrated 
traveller,  gives  the  following  account  of  an  encounter  he  had  with 
one  of  these  ferocious  animals : — 

"The  Crocodile,"  says  the  celebrated  traveller,  "makes  many 
victims  every  year  among  the  children  who  are  so  imprudent  as  to 
play  on  the  banks  of  the  Liambia  when  their  mothers  go  to  fetch 
water.  The  Crocodile  stupefies  its  victim  with  a  blow  from  its  tail, 
then  drags  it  into  the  river,  where  it  is  soon  drowned.  In  general, 
when  the  Crocodile  perceives  a  Man  it  dives,  and  furtively  glides 
away  from  the  side  which  he  occupies.  Sometimes,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  precipitates  itself  with  surprising  agility  towards  the  person 
it  has  discovered,  which  may  be  noticed  from  the  disturbance 


152  SAUBIANS. 

caused  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  An  Antelope  which  is  being 
hunted  and  takes  to  the  water,  in  the  lagunes  of  the  Barotse  valley, 
a  Man  or  a  Dog  who  goes  there  to  seek  for  game,  will  scarcely  fail 
to  be  seized  by  a  Crocodile,  of  whose  presence  he  has  not  the 
slightest  suspicion.  It  often  happens  that,  after  having  danced  in 
the  moonlight,  the  young  natives  of  the  river's  bank  will  often 
plunge  into  the  water  in  order  to  refresh  themselves,  when,  being 
seized  by  an  Alligator,  they  perish." 

[This  mode  of  attack  (striking  with  the  tail)  is  also  one  of  the 
methods  adopted  by  the  Alligator  of  America  for  disabling  its 
prey.  A  friend,  on  whose  veracity  I  have  much  dependence,  while 
shooting  wild  fowl  on  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Lower  Missis- 
sippi, had  the  fortune  to  witness  a  fight  between  a  Bear  and  an 
Alligator.  He  was  called  to  the  scene  of  the  struggle  by  the 
noise  made  by  the  combatants,  in  the  dry  cane,  that  yielded  to 
their  pressure  as  they  fought  in  each  other's  embrace.  Several 
times  both  ceased  only  to  recover  breath  and  fresh  energy;  at 
length  the  Alligator  missed  striking  the  foe  with  its  tail,  Bruin 
seized  the  opportunity,  and  with  all  his  efforts  succeeded  in  turning 
the  amphibian  on  its  back,  where  he  held  him  for  some  minutes,  at 
the  same  time  gnawing  one  of  the  fore-shoulders.  A  final 
struggle  of  the  now  worsted  Alligator  hurled  both  into  the  water, 
where  they  disappeared,  the  disturbed  surface  telling  of  the 
dreadful  contest  that  was  being  prolonged  beneath  ;  after  the  lapse 
•of  over  a  minute  the  Bear  came  up,  evidently  much  fatigued,  and 
swam  ashore,  my  friend  forbearing  to  wound,  or  possibly  kill,  the 
gallant  conqueror.] 

Crocodiles,  it  is  said,  which  have  never  eaten  human  flesh,  are 
much  less  dangerous  than  those  that  have  acquired  a  taste  for 
it.  Mr.  Combes  states  that  he  was  assured  by  an  inhabitant  of 
Khartoum,  who  had  reached  the  town  with  the  Egyptian  troops — 
that  is  to  say,  before  the  horrors  committed  by  the  D  ester  dar,  acting 
with  Mehemet  Bey,  who  had  been  Governor  of  the  Soudan  some 
time  before  Mr.  Combes' s  voyage — that  the  Crocodiles  appeared  to 
be  quite  indifferent  to  human  flesh ;  but  after  the  many  executions 
by  drowning  ordered  by  Mehemet  Bey,  as  he  was  told  by  a  native 
whom  he  interrogated — "  since  the  Nile  has  been  loaded  with  the 
carcasses  of  my  brethren  " — the  monsters  which  inhabit  it  have 


THE  CEOCODILE.  153 

become  habituated  to  substantial  food,  which  they  scarcely  knew 
before :  so  that  afterwards  those  swimming  in  the  river,  or  even 
bathing  on  its  banks,  were  exposed  to  imminent  danger. 

Natives  of  Africa  shoot  the  Crocodile  with  a  gun,  or  attack 
it  with  a  barbed  javelin,  which  is  thrown  by  hand,  and  aimed  at 
the  fore- shoulder.  Some  Egyptians  are  reported  to  be  daring 
enough  to  swim  under  the  Crocodile,  and  pierce  him  in  the  belly 
with  a  dagger.  The  negroes  of  Senegal  are  said  to  be  equally 
expert.  If  they  surprise  the  animals  in  parts  of  the  river  where 
there  is  not  sufficient  water  for  them  to  swim,  they  attack  the 
monster  with  a  lance ;  and  with  their  left  arm  wrapped  in  a 
sheet  of  leather,  they  commence  by  aiming  with  their  weapon 
at  the  eyes  and  throat ;  then  they  thrust  the  arm,  encased  in 
leather,  into  its  mouth,  and,  holding  it  open,  their  enemy  is 
either  suffocated  or  expires  under  the  wounds  received.  Traps 
are  also  employed  successfully  for  their  destruction.  In  Egypt 
the  natives  dig  a  deep  hole  in  the  ordinary  route  of  the  Croco- 
diles, which  is  easily  discovered  by  the  trail  they  leave  in  the 
sand.  This  hole  is  covered  with  branches  and  strewed  with 
earth.  The  Crocodile  is  now  alarmed  with  loud  cries,  which 
disturb  and  drive  him  back  to  the  river,  by  the  same  way  that 
it  has  left  it.  As  it  passes  over  the  treacherous  hole  it  falls  in, 
when  it  is  killed,  often  with  the  most  brutal  cruelty.  At  other 
times  a  thick  cord  is  attached  to  a  large  tree,  and  to  the  other 
end  of  the  cord  a  lamb  is  bound,  held  by  a  protruding  hook.  The 
cries  of  the  lamb  attract  the  Crocodile,  which,  in  its  attempt  to 
carry  off  the  bait,  is  taken  by  the  hook. 

Still  another  method  for  the  destruction  of  these  repulsive- 
looking  creatures  has  been  adopted  on  one  or  two  occasions  by 
our  countrymen  in  India.  A  dead  animal  is  procured,  in  its  abdo- 
men is  placed  a  loaded  shell,  to  which  is  attached  a  wire  made  fast 
to  an  electric  battery ;  when  the  bait  has  been  seized  and  carried 
to  the  bottom,  the  shell  is  exploded,  which  invariably  maims  or 
kills  the  Crocodile. 

The  Gavials,  or  Indian  Crocodiles,  have  long  narrow  cylindrical 
muzzles,  slightly  inflated  at  the  extremity ;  the  teeth  are  almost 
the  same,  both  in  number  and  shape,  on  each  jaw,  the  two  first 
and  the  fourth  of  the  lower  jaw  pass  into  notches  or  indentations 


154  SAUEIANS. 

in  the  upper  jaw,  and  not  into  holes,  as  in  Crocodiles  ;  the  hind  legs 
are  dentated  and  palmated,  like  those  of  African  Crocodiles.  The 
Gavials  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their  long  head,  its  type  being 
the  Gavial  of  the  Ganges,  or  Gavial  longirostre.  It  is  of  a  deep 
watery  green  colour,  having  on  the  upper  part  numerous  irregular 
brown  spots ;  in  the  young,  the  back  and  limbs  are  transversely 
banded  with  black ;  the  lower  part  is  of  a  pale  whitish  yellow ; 
the  jaws  are  marked  with  brown,  the  claws  are  of  a  clear  horn 
colour.  This  species  is  not  so  carnivorous  as  the  others,  and  is  con- 
sequently less  dreaded. 

The  Gavial  of  the  Ganges,  G.  Gangeticus,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
largest  of  the  existing  Saurians  ;  its  length,  as  given  by  Dumeril, 
is  seventeen  feet  four  inches, 


CHAPTEE  IV. 
CHELONIANS,  OR  SHIELDED  REPTILES. 

["  THE  body,"  as  described  by  Dr.  Gray,  "  is  covered  with  square 
imbedded  plates,  generally  forming  a  dorsal  and  ventral  shield 
united  by  their  margins,  leaving  only  the  head,  neck,  limbs,  and 
tail  free,  and  (in  some  species,  as  the  Box- Tortoises,  Cinasternon, 
shut  up  by  movable  closely-fitting  doors)  only  covered  with  a  scaly 
skin ;  the  upper  shield  formed  of  the  ribs  united  together  and 
adherent  to  the  dorsal  vertebrae  by  a  toothed  suture,  and  surrounded 
by  a  series  of  bones  forming  the  edge  of  the  shields ;  the  lower 
shield,  or  sternum,  formed  of  four  pairs  and  a  central  anterior 
bone  ;  the  jaws  toothless,  covered  with  a  horny  bill,  rarely  hid  by 
fleshy  lips  ;  eyelids  distinct ;  drum  of  the  ear  visible  ;  legs  short 
and  thick  ;  tail  conical."  "  The  natural  dwelling  chamber  of  the 
Chelonia  consists  chiefly,"  says  Professor  Owen,  "and  in  the 
marine  species  (Ckelone)  and  Mud  Turtles  (Trionyx)  solely,  of  the 
floor  and  the  roof;  side- walls  of  variable  extent  are  added  to  the 
fresh- water  species  (Emydians)  and  Land  Tortoises  (Testudinians). 
The  whole  consists  of  '  osseous  plates/  with  superincumbent  horny 
plates,  or  '  scutes/  except  in  the  Soft  or  Mud  Turtles  (Trionyx 
and  Sphargis),  in  both  of  which  these  are  wanting." — ("  Circle  of 
the  Sciences.") 

These  animals,  to  which  a  portable  stronghold  is  thus  given 
in  compensation  for  inferior  powers  of  locomotion  and  defence, 
are  recognisable  at  a  glance  from  the  singular  armour  with 
which  Nature  has  provided  them.  A  double  shield  envelopes  all 
parts  of  their  bodies,  only  permitting  the  head,  neck,  legs,  and 


156  CHELONIANS. 

tail  to  pass  through  it :  moreover,  all  these  organs  can  be  hidden 
within  this  double  cuirass  by  means  of  a  retractile  power  pos- 
sessed by  the  animal.  This  double  armour  consists  of  a  carapace, 
or  back-piece,  and.  plastron,  or  breast-plate,  composed  of  a  series 
of  small  bones  or  plates  closely  united  together  ;  the  first  resulting 
from  the  union  of  the  sides  and  dorsal  vertebrae,  the  plastron,  or 
lower  buckler,  being  only  a  highly- developed  sternum.  These 
organs  are  merely  portions  of  the  skeleton,  which,  in  place  of  being 
lodged  in  the  depths  of  the  soft  parts,  has  become  the  superficies, 
which  is  only  covered  by  a  thin,  dry  skin. 

This  numerous  and  highly-interesting  order  of  Reptiles,  called 
Chelonia,  from  xeAwn?,  a  Tortoise,  are  also  called  Testudinata,  from 
testudo,  the  Latin  name  for  a  Tortoise,  from  the  double  shield  in 
which  the  bodies  of  all,  whether  terrestrial,  fresh- water,  or  marine 
Tortoises,  are  enclosed. 

The  skeleton  of  the  Tortoise  is,  perhaps,  the  most  extraordinary 
structure  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  This  oddly- organised 
animal  when  first  seen  strikes  the  beholder  with  astonishment. 
The  carapace  and  plastron,  with  their  connecting  plates,  form  a  sort 
of  protecting  box,  in  which  the  animal  lives,  its  head  and  tail  ex- 
cepted.  In  the  land  Turtles  the  head  and  feet,  which  are  compara- 
tively senseless,  can  be  withdrawn  within  the  protecting  armour. 
The  ribs  and  sternum  are  both  placed  quite  on  the  exterior  of 
the  body,  so  as  to  form  a  broad  dorsal  shield  on  the  upper  surface, 
and  an  equally  strong  ventral  plate ;  between  these,  the  limbs  and 
the  head  can  be  more  or  less  completely  retracted.  Nevertheless, 
the  modifications  in  the  arrangement  of  the  elements  by  which 
these  changes  are  accomplished  are  of  the  simplest  nature.  In 
the  common  Tortoise,  Emys  Europceus,  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck 
and  tail  being  connected  together  in  the  ordinary  manner,  the 
neck  and  caudal  region  of  the  spine  present  their  usual  flexibility, 
but  the  dorsal  vertebrae  are  strangely  distorted,  the  upper  arch 
being  disproportionately  developed,  while  the  bodies  remain  almost 
in  a  rudimentary  state ;  the  spinous  processes  of  these  vertebrae 
are  flattened  and  converted  into  broad  osseous  plates,  which  form 
a  longitudinal  series  along  the  centre  of  the  back,  and  connected 
together  by  means  of  sutures.  The  ribs  are  changed  into  broad 
flat  bones  firmly  united  by  sutures  to  each  other,  and  also  to  the 


TOETOISES.  157 

lateral  margins  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebras,  so  that 
they  form  together  a  single  broad  plate  ;  the  heads  of  the  ribs  are 
feebly  developed,  and  the  intervals  between  them  and  the  bodies 
of  the  vertebrae  filled  up  with  ligament.  The  margin  of  the  shield 
thus  formed  by  the  dorsal  ribs  is  further  enlarged  by  a  third  set 
of  flat  bones  fixed  by  sutures  around  the  whole  circumference  of 
the  carapace. 

The  plastron,  or  ventral  plate,  is  made  up  of  nine  pieces,  of 
which  eight  are  arranged  in  pairs  ;  but  the  ninth,  which  is  always 
placed  between  the  four  pieces  composing  the  two  anterior  pairs, 
is  single,  and  occupies  the  mesial  line.  The  bones  of  the  shoulder 
and  hip  are  placed  within  the  thorax,  and  articulated  to  the  sides 
of  the  vertebral  column. 

Of  this  vertebral  column  in  these  extraordinary  animals,  Pro- 
fessor Owen  remarks  that  the  manifold  modifications  of  the 
framework  which  render  it  a  portable  abode,  appear  to  have  been 
given  as  a  compensation  for  inferior  powers  of  locomotion,  and  the 
absence  of  offensive  weapons.  But  with  all  its  modifications,  the 
same  number  of  pieces  are  found  in  the  bony  skeleton  as  in  other 
ordinary  vertebratse,  the  form  and  volume  of  many  of  these  pieces 
being  alone  changed. 

The  skin  which  covers  the  body  of  these  animals  sometimes 
preserves  its  softness,  being  altogether  devoid  of  scales  ;  but  in 
nearly  all  the  species  it  is  covered  with  horny  scales  of  great  con- 
sistency. Upon  the  plastron  and  carapace  these  scales  form  large 
plates,  the  arrangements  and  appearances  of  which  vary  in  dif- 
ferent species,  some  of  them  being  often  remarkably  beautiful. 
The  material  which  bears  the  name  of  Tortoise-shell  forms  an 
important  article  of  commerce. 


Aristotle  mentions  three  groups  of  Tortoises  ;  namely, 
xepo-aia,  or  Land  Tortoises  ;  OaXarrla,  or  Sea  Tortoises  ;  and 
or  Freshwater  Tortoises.  Cuvier  divides  them  into  five  sub- 
genera  : — 1,  Land  Tortoises,  Testudo  (Brogniart)  ;  2,  Fresh- water 
Tortoises,  Emydes  (Brogniart) ;  3,  Marine  Tortoises,  Chelque 
(Cuvier) ;  4,  Chelydes,  Testudo  fimbriata  ;  5,  Soft  Tortoises,  Trionyx 
(Geoffrey) — in  which  he  is  followed  by  Dr.  Gray  in  the  British 


158  CHELONIA.NS. 

Museum  Cataloguex  who  makes  them  the  third  order  of  Heptiles 
in  his  arrangement  as  follows : — 

I.   TESTUDLNTDyE. 

Testudo,  Chersina,  Kinixys,  Pyxis. 

II.  EMYDID^E. 

Geoemyda,  Emys,  Cyclemys,  Malaclemys,  Cistudo,  Kinosternon, 
Chelydra,  Platy sternum. 

III.  CHELYDID^E. 

Sternotherus,  Pelomedusa,  Hydraspis,  Chelymys,  Plirynops,  Chelodina, 
Hydromedusa,  Chelys,  PeltocepL.al.us,  Padocnemis. 

IY.  TRIONYCID^E. 
Trionyx,   Eniyda. 

V.  CHELONIAD^E. 
Sphargis,  Ghelonia,  Caretta,  Casuana. 

In  the  valuable  "  Erpetologie  "  of  Messrs.  Dumeril  and  Bibron, 
the  Chelonians  are  divided  into — 1,  Land  Tortoises,  Cher  sites  ;  2, 
Marsh  Tortoises,  Elodites ;  3,  River  Tortoises,  Potamites ;  4,  Sea 
Tortoises,  or  Turtles,  Thalassites. 

This  arrangement  being  the  most  simple,  is  adopted  as  best 
adapted  to  our  purpose.] 

LAND  TORTOISES. 

Terrestrial  Tortoises  are  distinguished  by  their  short,  oval,  and 
convex  bodies,  covered  by  carapace  and  plastron ;  four  feet,  and 
the  absence  of  teeth  ;  short,  stumpy,  unshapely  legs  ;  nearly  equal 
toes,  armed  with  claws,  united  by  a  thick  skin,  so  as  to  form  a 
clumsy  foot,  the  periphery  of  which  forms  a  sort  of  hoof,  which 
seems  adapted  for  the  land. 

In  this  group  the  carapace  is  very  convex,  its  height  sometimes 
exceeding  its  breadth ;  it  forms  a  solid,  generally  an  immovable, 
arch,  under  which  the  animal  can  completely  conceal  its  feet  and 
tail.  This  buckler  is  covered  with  large  horny  plates  or  scales. 

Land  Tortoises  have  been  known  from  the  earliest  times,  repre- 
sentations of  them  being  found  on  numerous  monuments  of  anti- 
quity, the  product  of  ancient  art.  Moreover,  ancient  writers  tell 


LAND  TORTOISES.  159 

us  that  the  carapace  of  the  Tortoise  contributed  its  substance  to 
the  formation  of  the  first  lyre ;  it  was  consequently  sacred  to 
Mercury  as  the  deity  of  music  and  inventor  of  that  instrument. 

The  Land  Tortoises  are  divided  into  four  genera,  which  Dumeril 
and  Bibron  again  divide  into  three  sub-genera  and  thirty  species. 
The  most  interesting  species,  however,  to  which  we  must  limit 
our  remarks  are — the  Marginate  Tortoise,  Testudo  marginato  ;  the 
Moorish  Tortoise,  Testudo  Mauritianica ;  the  Greek  Tortoise, 
Testudo  Grceca  ;  and  the  Elephantine  Tortoise,  Testudo  elephantina. 

The  Margined  Tortoise,  which  was  long  confounded  with  the 
Greek  Tortoise,  is  found  abundantly  throughout  the  Morea,  in 
Egypt,  and  upon  the  Barbary  coasts.  The  carapace  is  oval  in 
form,  oblong,  convex,  and  much  dilated  at  the  posterior  margin, 
and  nearly  horizontal ;  the  plastron  is  movable  behind,  which  is 
its  chief  sub- generic  character ;  the  tail  is  thick,  conical,  and 
scarcely  issues  from  the  carapace.  The  plates  of  the  disc  are  of  a 
blackish-brown,  presenting  towards  the  centre  certain  spots  of  a 
beautiful  yellow  colour ;  the  marginal  plates  are  habitually  orna- 


Fig.  35. — Testudo  Mauritianica. 

mented  with  two  triangular  spots,  one  yellow,  the  other  black. 
The  underpart  of  the  body  is  of  a  dirty  yellow,  with  one  large 
triangular  black  spot  upon  six  or  eight  of  the  sternal  scales.  This 
Tortoise  is  of  medium  size. 

The  Moorish  Tortoise,  Testudo  Mauritianica,  is  commonly  found 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Algiers,  and  along  the  coast  of  Morocco, 


160  CHELONIANS. 

whence  those  are  sent  which  are  sold  in  the  Paris  markets. 
When  shooting  in  Morocco,  scarcely  a  day  would  pass  without 
the  setters  or  pointers  finding  numbers  of  them,  to  which  they 
would  stand  with  as  much  staunchness  as  game.  The  scent  they 
emit  is  so  powerful  as  to  be  easily  detected  by  a  human  being. 
The  carapace  of  this  species  is  also  convex  ;  the  sternum  is  also 
movable  behind :  it  is  generally  olive-coloured.  The  plates  of  the 
disc  are  marked  with  blackish  spots,  and  sometimes  with  a  buckle 
of  the  same  colour,  which  covers  their  circumference  on  the  front 
and  sides.  The  plates  of  the  plastron,  the  ground  of  which  is 
olive,  have  each  a  large  black  spot  in  the  centre.  This  species  is 
rather  smaller  than  the  Marginate  Tortoise. 

The  Greek  Tortoise,  Testudo  Grceca,  is  of  small  dimensions, 
scarcely  exceeding  twelve  inches  in  length.  They  inhabit  Greece, 
Italy,  some  of  the  Mediterranean  isles,  and  the  south  of  France, 
from  whence  it  seems  to  have  been  transplanted  into  Italy.  They 
feed  upon  herbs,  roots,  slugs,  and  lob- worms.  Like  all  their  race, 
they  sleep  during  the  winter,  passing  this  season  in  holes  which 
they  excavate  in  the  soil  sometimes  more  than  thirty  inches  deep. 
As  the  month  of  May  approaches  they  issue  from  their  retreat, 
resorting  to  some  sheltered  sandy  place,  where  they  bask  them- 
selves in  the  sun's  rays.  Towards  the  month  of  June  the  females 
lay  from  twelve  to  fourteen  white  spherical  eggs,  as  large  as  a 
small  walnut ;  they  dispose  these  eggs  in  a  hole  exposed  to  the  sun ; 
but  covered  over  with  earth.  Thus  the  operation  of  hatching  is 
performed.  The  carapace  of  this  species  is  oval  and  very  much 
arched ;  their  marginal  plates  are  twenty-five  in  number ;  the 
plastron,  which  is  almost  as  long  as  the  carapace,  is  separated 
into  two  great  portions  by  a  longitudinal  line ;  the  plates  of 
the  carapace  are  spotted  with  black  and  greenish  yellow,  forming 
a  large  marbled  pattern  ;  the  centre  of  the  disc  is  besides  relieved 
by  a  small,  irregular,  blackish,  central  spot.  These  three  species 
are  held  in  high  estimation  on  account  of  their  flesh,  which  gives 
an  agreeable  taste  to  soup. 

The  Elephantine  Tortoise,  Testudo  elepkantina,  the  length  of 
which  is  more  than  three  feet,  inhabits  most  of  the  islands 
situated  in  the  Mozambique  Channel — namely,  between  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa  and  the  Isle  of  Madagascar.  The  Museum 


MAESH  TOETOISES.  161 

of  Natural  History  at  Paris  had  specimens  of  this  Tortoise  which 
lived  more  than  twelve  months,  and  which  weighed  about  six 
hundred  pounds.  Their  flesh  is  extremely  delicate,  and  much 
sought  after. 

In  some  other  Terrestrial  Tortoises,  from  which  the  genus  Pyxis 
has  been  formed,  the  anterior  portion  of  the  plastron  is  movable ; 
and  when  the  head  and  feet  are  drawn  in,  the  animal  can  fasten 
itself  against  the  sides  of  the  carapace  like  a  door  in  its  case. 

In  some  Terrestrial  Tortoises,  which  have  been  formed  into  par- 
ticular genera,  the  carapace  is  flexible,  and  can  lower  itself  behind 
like  the  plastron ;  these  are  Kinixys.  Lastly,  there  are  others 
which,  for  legs,  have  only  four  unguiculated  toes :  such  as  the 
Homopodes. 

MARSH  TORTOISES. 

Marsh  Tortoises,  Eloditea,  occupy  a  place  between  Terrestrial 
Tortoises  and  those  which  are  essentially  aquatic.  They  have  the 
carapace  more  or  less  depressed,  oval,  and  broader  behind ;  their  feet 
have  distinct  flexible  toes  supplied  with  hooked  claws,  of  which  the 
phalanges  are  united  at  the  base  by  means  of  an  elastic  skin,  which 
enables  them  to  separate  one  from  the  other,  at  the  same  time 
preserving  their  strength  and  assisting  them  to  grasp  a  much 
larger  surface.  Thus  they  can  walk  upon  the  ground,  swim  on  the 
surface  of  deep  waters,  and  climb  up  the  banks  of  lakes  or  other 
tranquil  waters,  which  are  their  habitual  dwelling-places. 

These  Tortoises  are  generally  of  small  size ;  being  carnivorous, 
they  feed  upon  small  living  animals.  As  they  exhale  a  nauseous 
odour  they  are  not  used  as  an  article  of  food ;  and  further,  as 
their  carapace  is  neither  thick  enough  nor  beautiful  enough  to 
be  manufactured  as  tortoise-shell,  they  are  consequently  little 
sought  after.  There  are  a  hundred  species  of  Elodians,  or 
Marsh  Tortoises,  known,  which  are  spread  over  all  parts  of  the 
globe,  but  principally  in  warm  and  temperate  regions.  Such  are 
the  CistudOy  Emydes,  and  Trionyx. 

The  Elodians  have  none  of  the  sluggishness  of  the  Land 
Tortoises ;  they  swim  with  facility,  and  on  land  they  walk  with  con- 
siderable rapidity.  Their  eggs  are  white,  and  nearly  spherical,  with 
a  calcareous  shell,  and  these  are  deposited  in  a  hollow  dug  in  the  soil 


162  CHELONIANS. 

or  sand,  like  the  Land  Tortoises,  the  place  chosen  being  generally 
situated  on  the  banks  of  some  secluded  stream;  the  number  of 
eggs  increasing  as  the  animal  approaches  maturity. 

The  Elodians  are  divided  into  Cryptoderes  and  Pleuroderes : 
the  former  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  the  retractile  power 
they  possess  of  concealing  their  cylindrical  neck,  with  its  sheath 
of  loose  skin,  under  the  middle  of  the  carapace ;  the  head,  whose 
width  is  nearly  equal  to  its  height  at  the  occiput ;  the  eyes  always 
lateral,  and  their  orbit  so  large  that  the  diameter  of  the  cavity 
nearly  equals  a  fourth  of  the  whole  cranium ;  and  the  jaws,  which 
are  strong,  sometimes  trenchant,  in  others  are  dentated  on  the  edge. 
In  the  larger  number  of  species  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  upper 
beak  is  notched  with  a  strong  tooth  on  each  side,  producing  the 
appearance  of  a  beak  closely  resembling  that  of  birds  of  prey. 


Fig.  36. — Mud  Tortoise  (Cistudo  Europced). 

The  Mud  Tortoises,  Cistudo,  sometimes  called  the  Yellow  Tor- 
toise (Fig.  36)  are  very  abundant  in  Europe.  They  are  found  in 
Greece,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  in  the  southern  provinces  of 
France ;  also  in  Hungary,  Germany,  and  as  far  north  as  Prussia. 
They  inhabit  lakes,  marshes,  and  ponds,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
they  bury  themselves  in  the  mud.  Occasionally  they  come  to  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  remain  there  for  hours.  They  live 
principally  upon  insects,  mollusks,  aquatic  worms,  and  small 


MARSH  TOETOISES. 


163 


fishes.  Although  the  flesh  of  the  Mud  Tortoise  is  far  from  being 
palatable,  it  is  nevertheless  eaten  in  countries  where  they 
are  common. 


Fig.  37.— Emydes  Caspica. 

The  Emydes  are  divided  into  four  considerable  groups,  namely, 
the  European  group,  of  which   Pig.  37,  E.   Caspica,  is  typical ; 


Fig.  38.— Chelys  matamata. 

the  American  group,  containing  twelve  or  fourteen  species ;  the 
African  Emys  ;  and  the  Oriental  group  of  twelve  species. 

M2 


il64  ;  CHELONIANS. 

The  Pleuroderes  have  the  neck  retractile  on  one  side  of  the 
carapace,  without  their  having  the  power  of  drawing  it  between 
their  fore  feet,  and  under  the  buckler  and  plastron,  like  the 
Cryptoderes.  Chelys  matamata  (Fig.  38)  belongs  to  this  division. 
This  species  lives  in  stagnant  water,  and  is  altogether  remark- 
able for  its  singular  appearance — for  its  depressed,  wide,  and  tri- 
angular nostrils,  prolonged  into  a  proboscis ;  its  wide  gape, 
rounded  jaws,  and  the  cutaneous  appendages  to  the  chin.  This 
is  sometimes  called  the  Bearded  Tortoise. 

POTAMIANS,   OR    RlVER   TORTOISES. 

The  River  Tortoises  live  constantly  in  the  water,  only  coming 
to  land  occasionally  ;  they  swim  with  much  ease  below  and 
on  the  surface.  The  carapace  is  very  broad  and  flat ;  the  toes 
united  up  to  the  claws  by  broad  flexible  membranes.  These 
membranes  change  the  feet  into  true  paddles,  which  perform 
the  office  of  oars.  They  seem  to  attain  a  considerable  size, 
one  kept  by  Pennant  for  three  months  weighing  twenty  pounds, 
its  buckler  not  reckoned ;  the  neck  measuring  twenty  inches 
in  length.  The  upper  parts  of  their  bodies  vary  in  tint  from 
brown  to  grey,  with  irregularly  marbled,  dotted,  or  ocellated 
spots ;  the  underpart  is  a  pale  white,  rosy,  or  purple  tint.  Sinuous 
brown,  black,  or  yellow  lines  are  symmetrically  disposed  on  the 
right  and  left,  principally  on  the  neck  and  on  the  limbs. 

During  the  night,  when  they  think  themselves  safe,  the  River 
Tortoises  seek  repose  on  the  rocks  and  islets,  or  on  timber  floating  in 
the  rivers,  from  which  they  plunge  into  the  water  on  the  slightest 
noise.  These  Tortoises,  which  accommodate  themselves  so  perfectly 
to  the  medium  that  they  inhabit,  are  continually  at  war  with 
the  fishes,  reptiles,  mollusks,  and  other  denizens  of  the  rivers. 
They  are  voracious  and  active,  and  are  relentless  enemies  to  the 
young  of  fishes,  and  especially  of  Crocodiles. 

The  carapace  of  the  River  Tortoise,  Trionyx,  is  soft,  covered  with 
a  flexible  cartilaginous  skin  resting  on  a  greatly-depressed  osseous 
disk;  its  upper  surface  is  covered  with  shrivelled  sinuosities.  As 
they  are  destitute  of  scales  these  Tortoises  are  said  to  be  soft; 
their  flesh  is  much  esteemed,  and  they  are  angled  for  with  hook 
and  line,  baited  with  small  fishes  or  living  worms  and  mollusks,  or 


EIVEK  TORTOISE. 


165 


with,  dead  bait,  to  which  the  sportsman  gives  motion  and  apparent 
life,  for  they  are  said  never  to  approach  dead  prey.  When  they 
seize  their  victim,  or  defend  themselves,  they  dart  out  their  head 
and  long  neck  with  great  rapidity,  biting  sharply  with  their 
trenchant  beak,  and  holding  on  till  they  have  bitten  out  the 
piece.  From  this  peculiarity  they  are  commonly  known  in  the 
United  States  as  the  Snapping  Turtle.  Persons  wading  have  been 
known  to  lose  toes  from  their  bite. 

M.   Lesueur   states  that  towards   the   beginning  of  May  the 


Fig.  39. — Trionyx  ^Egyptiacus. 

females  of  Gymnopus  spinifera,  belonging  to  this  division,  seek 
out  sunny  sandy  spots  on  the  river's  bank  for  the  deposit  of  their 
eggs  ;  they  are  not  deterred  from  choosing  steeps  of  ten  or  fifteen 
feet  for  this  purpose.  Their  eggs  are  spherical,  and  more  fragile 
than  those  of  the  Marsh  Tortoise.  They  deposit  from  fifty  to 
sixty  at  a  time.  None  of  this  group  are  found  in  Europe.  The 
fresh- water  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  warmer  regions,  such  as  the 
Nile  and  the  Niger,  in  Africa,  the  Mississippi,  the  Ohio,  and  the 


166  CHELONIANS. 

Amazon  rivers,  in  America,  the  Euphrates  and  the  Ganges,  in 
Asia,  are  its  habitats.  Among  other  remarkable  species  in  the 
group  we  here  represent  Trionyx  ^Egyptiacus,  Fig.  39,  supposed 
to  be  the  E/^vs  of  Aristotle. 

No  modern  naturalist  has  done  more  to  illustrate  the  habits  of 
the  Fresh- water  Turtle  than  Mr.  Bates,  in  his  highly  interesting 
work,  "  The  Naturalist  on  the  Amazon."  "  The  great  Fresh- 
water Turtle  (probably  Platemys  cefipes)  of  the  Amazon  or 
Solimoens  grows  on  the  upper  river,"  he  says,  "to  an  immense 
size,  a  full-grown  one  measuring  nearly  three  feet  in  length,  by 
two  in  breadth,  and  is  a  load  for  the  strongest  Indian.  Every 
house  (in  Ega)  has  a  little  pond  called  a  corral,  or  pen  in  the 
back- yard,  to  hold  a  stock  of  these  animals  through  the  season  of 
dearth — the  wet  months.  Those  who  have  a  number  of  Indians  in 
their  employ  send  them  out  for  weeks,  when  the  waters  are  low, 
to  collect  a  stock,  and  those  who  have  not  purchase  their 
supply — this  is  attended  with  some  difficulty  however,  as  they 
are  rarely  offered  for  sale.  The  price  of  Turtles,  like  that  of 
other  articles  of  food,  has  risen  greatly  since  the  introduction 
of  steam- vessels.  Thus,  when  I  arrived,  in  1850,  a  middle-sized 
one  could  be  bought  for  ninepence,  but  when  I  left,  in  1859,  they 
were  with  difficulty  obtained  for  eight  or  nine  shillings  each. 
The  abundance  of  Turtles  varies  with  the  amount  of  diurnal  subsi- 
dence of  the  waters.  When  the  river  sinks  less  than  the  average, 
they  are  scarce ;  but  when  high  waters  have  prevailed,  they  can 
be  caught  in  abundance,  their  haunts  being  less  restricted,  and 
appropriate  breeding-places  more  numerous. 

"  The  flesh  is  very  tender,  palatable,  and  wholesome  ;  but  it  is 
very  cloying,  and  every  one  ends  sooner  or  later  by  becoming 
thoroughly  surfeited.  I  became  so  sick  of  Turtle  in  the  course  of 
two  years  that  I  could  not  bear  the  smell  of  it,  although  nothing 
else  was  to  be  had  ;  consequently  I  suffered  from  actual  hunger." 

One  of  the  most  amusing  sketches  in  Mr.  Bates'  book  is  a  journey 
he  made  on  the  Solimoens,  during  which  he  visited  the  praias,  or 
sand-islands,  the  Turtle-pools  in  the  forests,  and  the  by-streams 
and  lakes  of  the  great  river.  His  companion  was  Cardozo,  who 
was  a  sort  of  official  superintendent  of  the  diggers  for  Turtles'  eggs 
on  the  sand-banks  of  Shimuni,  the  island  lying  nearest  to  Ega. 


FEESH-WATEE  TUETLES.  167 

There  are  four  or  five  of  these  Royal  Praias,  as  they  are  called,  in 
the  district,  each  having  its  commandant,  whose  business  is  to  see 
that  every  inhabitant  has  an  equal  chance  in  the  egg-field. 

"  The  pregnant  Turtles  descend  from  the  interior  pools  of  the 
main  river  in  July  and  August,  before  the  outlets  dry  up,  and  seek 
their  favourite  sand-island  in  countless  swarms ;  for  it  is  only  a 
few  praias  that  are  selected  by  them  out  of  the  great  number 
existing.  When  hatched,  the  young  animals  remain  in  the  pools 
throughout  the  dry  season  ;  for  these  breeding-places  of  the  Turtle 
then  lie  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river,  and 
are  accessible  only  by  cutting  a  path  through  the  dense  forest."  On 
the  26th  of  September  Mr.  Bates  left  Ega  with  his  companion,  who 
was  about  to  visit  the  sentinels  placed  to  mark  when  and  where  the 
Turtles  laid  their  eggs.  Their  conveyance  was  a  stoutly-built  canoe, 
or  igarete,  arranged  for  two  paddlers,  with  an  arched  covering  in 
the  stern,  under  which  three  persons  could  sleep  pretty  comfort- 
ably. The  swift  current  of  the  Solimoens  carried  them  rapidly  to 
the  large  wooded  island  of  Baria,  which  divides  the  river  into  two 
broad  channels.  Shimuni  lies  in  the  middle  of  the  north-easterly 
passage.  They  were  quickly  paddled  across,  reaching  it  an  hour 
before  sunset.  The  island  is  about  three  miles  long  and  half  a 
mile  broad.  The  forest  which  covers  it  rises  to  an  immense 
uniform  height,  presenting  all  round  a  compact  and  impervious 
front,  the  uniformity  being  interrupted  here  and  there  by  a  singular 
tree,  called  Mulatto  wood,  whose  polished  dark- green  trunk  is  seen 
conspicuously  through  the  mass  of  vegetation.  The  sand-bank  lies  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  island,  and  extends  several  miles,  presenting 
an  irregular  surface  of  ridges  and  hollows.  At  the  further  shore  to 
the  north-east,  where  no  forest  line  shuts  out  the  view,  the  white, 
rolling,  sandy  plain  stretches  away  to  the  horizon ;  to  the  south- 
west a  channel,  about  a  mile  in  breadth,  separates  Baria  from 
Shimuni. 

Arrived  at  this  island,  Mr.  Bates  proceeds  to  describe  with  great 
minuteness  the  operations  of  the  Turtles,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
sentinels  placed  to  watch  them. 

"  We  found  two  sentinels,"  he  says,  "  lodged  in  a  corner  of  the 
praia,  where  it  commences  at  the  foot  of  the  towering  forest  west 
of  the  island,  having  built  themselves  a  little  rancho  with  poles 


168  CHELONIANS. 

and  palm-leaves.  Great  precautions  are  obliged  to  be  taken  to 
avoid  disturbing  the  vigilant  Turtles,  which,  previous  to  crawling 
ashore  to  lay,  assemble  in  great  shoals  off  the  sand-bank.  The 
men  during  this  time  take  care  not  to  show  themselves,  and  they 
warn  off  any  fisherman  who  attempts  to  pass  near  the  place ;  for 
the  passage  of  a  boat,  or  the  sight  of  a  man,  or  a  fire  on  the  sand- 
bank, would  prevent  their  laying  their  eggs  that  night,  and  if 
repeated,  they  wrould  forsake  the  praia  for  some  quieter  place." 

After  a  night  spent  under  a  temporary  shed  rapidly  constructed 
for  himself  and  companion,  Mr.  Bates  rose  from  his  hammock 
shivering  with  cold. 

"  Cardoza  and  the  men  were  already  watching  the  Turtles  on  a 
stage  erected  on  a  tall  tree  fifty  feet  high  ;  from  this  watch-tower 
they  are  enabled  to  ascertain  the  place  and  date  of  successive 
deposits  of  eggs,  and  thus  guide  the  commandant  in  fixing  the 
time  for  his  general  invitation  to  the  Ega  people.  The  Turtles  lay 
their  eggs  during  the  night,  leaving  the  water  in  vast  crowds 
when  all  around  is  quiet,  when  they  crawl  to  the  central  and 
highest  part  of  the  praia.  The  hours  between  midnight  and  dawn 
are  those  when  the  Turtles  excavate,  with  their  broad,  webbed 
paws,  deep  holes  in  the  fine  sand,  the  animal  in  each  case  making 
a  pit  about  three  feet  deep ;  in  this  pit  it  lays  its  eggs,  about  a 
hundred  and  twenty  in  number,  covering  them  over  with  sand ; 
then  a  second  deposit  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  first,  and  so  on 
until  the  pit  is  full."  This  goes  on  for  about  fourteen  days. 
"  When  all  have  done,  the  area,  or  taboliero,  over  which  they 
have  been  digging  is  only  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
praia  by  signs  of  the  sand  having  been  a  little  disturbed. 

"  On  rising  I  went  to  join  my  friends,"  he  continues,  "  and  few 
recollections  of  my  Amazonian  rambles  are  more  vivid  and  agree- 
able than  that  of  my  walk  over  the  white  sea  of  sand  on  this 
cool  morning.  The  sky  was  cloudless ;  the  just-risen  sun  was 
hid  behind  the  dense  woods  on  Shimuni,  but  the  long  line  of 
forest  to  the  west  on  Baria,  with  its  plumy  decorations  of  palms, 
was  lighted  up  with  his  yellow  horizontal  rays.  A  faint  chorus 
of  singing-birds  reached  the  ears  from  across  the  water,  and  flocks 
of  Gulls  and  Plovers  were  calling  plaintively  over  the  swelling 
banks  of  the  praia.  Tracks  of  stray  Turtles  were  visible  on  the 


FBESH- WATER  TURTLES.  169 

smooth  white  surface,  two  of  which  had  been  caught,  for  stragglers 
from  the  main  body  are  a  lawful  prize. 

"  On  arriving  at  the  edge  of  the  forest  I  mounted  the  sentinels' 
stage  just  in  time  to  see  the  Turtles  retreating  to  the  water  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  sand-bank.  The  sight  was  well  worth  the 
trouble  of  ascending.  They  were  about  a  mile  off,  but  the  surface 
of  the  sand  was  blackened  with  the  multitudes  which  were  wad- 
dling towards  the  river ;  the  margin  of  the  praia  was  rather 
steep,  and  they  all  seemed  to  tumble  head  first  down  the  declivity 
into  the  water." 

On  the  2nd  of  October  the  same  party  left  Ega  on  a  second 
excursion,  the  object  of  Cardoza  being  this  time  to  search  certain 
pools  in  the  forest  for  young  Turtles.  The  exact  situation  of  these 
hidden  sheets  of  water  are  known  to  few.  The  morning  was 
cloudy  and  cool,  and  a  fresh  wind  blew  down  the  river  ;  they  had 
to  struggle,  therefore,  against  wind  and  current.  The  boat  was 
tossed  about  and  shipped  a  good  deal  of  water.  Their  destination 
was  a  point  of  land  twenty  miles  below  Shimuni.  The  coast-line 
was  nearly  straight  for  many  miles,  and  the  bank  averaged  about 
thirty  feet  above  the  then  level  of  the  river ;  at  the  top  rose  an 
unbroken  hedge  of  forest.  No  one  could  have  divined  that  pools 
of  water  existed  on  that  elevated  land. 

A  path  was  cut  through  the  forest  by  our  party  with  their 
hunting-knives  to  the  pool,  half  a  mile  distant ;  short  poles  were 
cut  and  laid  across  the  path,  over  which  three  light  canoes  were 
rolled,  after  being  dragged  up  the  bank.  A  large  net,  seventy 
yards  in  length,  was  then  disembarked  and  carried  to  the  place. 
Netting,  however,  the  older  Indians  considered  unsportsmanlike  ; 
and,  on  reaching  the  pool,  they  commenced  shooting  the  Turtles 
with  bows  and  arrows  from  light  stages  erected  on  the  shores. 

"  The  pool  covered  an  area  of  about  four  acres,  and  was  closely 
hemmed  in  by  the  forest,  which,  in  picturesque  variety  and 
grouping,  often  exceeded  almost  anything  I  had  seen.  The 
margins  for  some  distance  were  swampy,  and  covered  with  large 
tufts  of  fine  grass  called  matupd.  These  tufts  were  in  many  places 
overrun  with  ferns,  and  exterior  to  them  was  a  crowded  row  of 
arborescent  shrubs  growing  to  a  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet, 
forming  a  green  palisade.  Around  the  whole  stood  the  taller 


170  CHELONIANS. 

forest  trees — palmate-leaved  Cecropice;  slender  Assai  palms  thirty 
feet  high,  with  their  thin  feathery  heads  crowning  their  gently- 
curving,  smooth  stems ;  and,  as  a  background  to  these  airy 
forms,  lay  the  voluminous  masses  of  ordinary  forest  trees,  with 
garlands,  festoons,  and  streamers  of  leafy  parasites  hanging  from 
their  branches." 

The  pool  which  was  hemmed  in  by  this  gorgeous  scenery  was 
nowhere  more  than  five  feet  deep,  and  of  that  one  foot  was  a  fine 
soft  mud.  Cardoza  and  the  author  spent  an  hour  paddling  about 
admiring  the  skill  displayed  by  the  Indians  in  shooting  Turtles. 
They  did  not  wait  for  the  animals  to  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe, 
but  watched  for  the  slightest  movements  in  the  water  which 
revealed  their  presence  underneath;  that  instant  an  arrow  flew 
from  the  bow  of  the  nearest  man,  which  never  failed  to  pierce  the 
shell  of  the  submerged  animal,  and  by  mid-day  about  a  score  of 
full-grown  Turtles  had  been  shot.  The  net  was  now  spread  at 
one  extremity  of  the  oval- shaped  pool,  its  side  resting  on  the 
bottom,  while  the  floats  buoyed  the  other  side  up  on  the  sur- 
face, the  cords  being  held  by  two  Indians.  The  rest  of  the  party 
now  spread  themselves  round  the  pool,  beating  the  water  with  long 
poles,  in  order  to  drive  the  Turtles  towards  the  centre.  When  they 
neared  the  net,  the  men  moved  more  quickly,  beating  and  shouting 
with  great  vigour.  The  ends  of  the  net  were  now  seized  with 
vigorous  hands,  and  dragged  suddenly  forward,  bringing  them  at 
the  same  time  together,  so  as  to  enclose  all  within  a  circle.  Every 
man  then  leapt  into  the  enclosure,  the  boats  were  brought  up,  and 
the  captured  Turtles  were  thrown  in.  In  this  manner  about  eighty 
were  secured  in  twenty  minutes. 

Among  these  were  several  male  Turtles,  or  capetaris,  as  they 
are  called  by  the  natives.  They  are  much  less  numerous  than  the 
females,  much  smaller,  and  more  circular  in  shape ;  their  flesh  is 
considered  unwholesome. 

On  the  17th  of  October,  the  day  announced  for  the  taboliero,  or 
egg-digging,  Mr.  Bates  made  a  last  excursion  in  Senhor  Cardoza's 
company.  Egg-collecting  occupied  four  days.  On  the  morning 
of  the  17th  about  four  hundred  persons  were  assembled  on  the 
sand-bank ;  each  family  had  erected  a  rude  temporary  shed  of 
poles  and  palm-leaves,  to  protect  themselves  from  sun  and  rain. 


SEA-TORTOISES.  171 

Large  copper  kettles  to  prepare  the  oil,  and  hundreds  of  red 
earthenware  jars,  were  scattered  about  on  the  sands.  The  com- 
mandant commenced  by  taking  down  the  names  of  all  masters  of 
households,  with  the  number  of  persons  each  intended  to  employ 
in  digging  ;  he  then  exacted  from  each  a  fine  equal  to  fourpence 
a  head  towards  defraying  the  expense  of  the  sentinels,  when  the 
whole  were  allowed  to  go  to  the  taboliero.  It  was  exhausted  by 
the  end  of  the  second  day,  when  each  household  had  erected  large 
mounds  of  eggs  beside  their  temporary  hut. 

THALASSIANS,  OR  SEA  TORTOISES. 

Cheloniadce,  Gray ;  Carettoidce,  Fitzing ;  Halyckelones,  Kelgen ; 
Oiocopodee,  "Wagler. 

The  Turtles  or  Sea  Tortoises  are  distinguished  from  all  others  by 
a  comparatively  flat  carapace,  long  members,  the  extremities  of 
which  terminate  in  broad  paddles,  the  anterior  much  longer  than 
the  posterior  ones ;  the  toes,  though  formed  of  distinct  pieces,  can 
only  act  together,  thus  constituting  true  oars,  admirably  arranged 
for  swimming.  Their  carapace,  besides  being  flat,  is  indented  and 
elongated  in  front,  and  contracted  behind,  being  disposed  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  head  and  feet  can  be  completely  hidden. 

Marine  Tortoises  are  the  largest  of  their  species :  they  swim 
and  dive  with  great  facility,  and  can  remain  long  under  water. 
The  external  orifice  of  the  nasal  canal  is  furnished  with  a  sort  of 
valve,  which  the  animal  raises  when  it  is  in  the  air  and  closes  when 
under  water ;  but  it  rarely  leaves  its  liquid  element  except  in  the 
breeding  season,  when  nature  prompts  it  to  seek  the  shore  to  lay  its 
eggs.  Some  of  the  species,  however,  seek  the  shore  in  the  night, 
when  they  frequent  the  banks  of  desert  and  solitary  isles,  where 
they  browse  on  marine  plants.  Although  they  walk  with  difficulty, 
and  even  with  pain,  in  quiet  seas  they  may  be  seen  floating  like  a 
boat,  in  absolute  immobility,  and  asleep  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  "With  their  horny  jaws,  which  are  hard  and  trenchant 
as  the  beak  of  a  bird  of  prey,  some  of  them  feed  upon  sea- weed 
and  algaB,  while  others  feed  on  living  animals,  such  as  crustaceans, 
zoophytes,  and  mollusks. 

We  have  seen  how  regularly  and  systematically  the  Land  Tor- 


172  CHELONIANS. 

toises  proceed  in  depositing  their  eggs — nor  is  less  precaution 
taken  by  the  Sea  Tortoise.  The  females,  accompanied  by  the 
males,  traverse  several  hundreds  of  miles  of  sea  in  order  to  deposit 
their  eggs  in  some  favoured  locality.  Other  females  resort,  year 
after  year,  almost  to  a  day,  to  the  sandy  shore  of  some  desert  isle, 
where  they  drag  themselves  ashore  during  the  night,  sufficiently 
inland  to  be  safe  from  the  tide.  In  some  such  spot,  using  their 
hind  feet  by  way  of  a  shovel,  they  excavate  holes  about  thirty 
inches  deep.  Here  they  lay  frequently  a  hundred  eggs,  covering 
them  up  afterwards  with  the  fine  sand,  levelling  the  surface, 
and  then  returning  to  sea,  leaving  the  eggs  to  be  hatched  by 
the  solar  rays.  The  eggs  are  round,  slightly  depressed  at  both 
ends,  and  furnished  with  a  coriaceous  shell.  From  the  high  tem- 
perature communicated  to  the  sand-bank,  they  are  hatched  in  about 
fifteen  days.  The  females  seem  to  have  two  or  three  layings  in 
the  season,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks.  When  the  young 
Turtles  are  hatched,  they  are  feeble,  white,  and  about  the  size  of 
frogs,  and  their  instincts  lead  them  at  once  to  the  sea.  Under 
the  fostering  care  of  their  mother,  those  which  have  escaped  the 
birds  of  prey  on  their  way  to  the  sea,  and  the  fishes  lying  in 
wait  for  them,  rapidly  develop,  and  attain,  under  favourable 
circumstances,  an  enormous  size, — some  of  the  Sphargis,  or 
Soft  Turtles,  having  been  known  to  weigh  from  fifteen  to  sixteen 
hundred  pounds, — while  others,  whose  carapaces  measured  more 
than  fifteen  feet  in  circumference  and  seven  feet  in  length,  exceeded 
eighteen  hundred  pounds. 

Marine  Tortoises  are  met  with  in  herds  more  or  less  numerous 
in  all  seas,  principally  towards  the  torrid  zone  in  the  tropical 
regions,  on  the  shores  of  the  Antilles,  in  Cuba,  Jamaica,  St.  Do- 
mingo, the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  Those  occa- 
sionally found  by  navigators  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean seem  to  be  wanderers  separated  from  some  travelling 
bands. 

Of  all  reptiles,  the  Sea  Tortoise  is  the  most  useful  to  man.  In 
countries  where  they  are  common,  and  where  they  attain  an 
enormous  size,  their  flesh  is  the  most  healthy  and  nourishing  food, 
and  their  carapace  serves  as  a  canoe  in  which  the  natives  paddle 
along  the  shores.  They  even  roof  their  huts  with  them ;  they 


SEA-TOETOISES. 


173 


convert  them  into  drinking-troughs  for  their  cattle  and  into  baths 
for  their  children.  According  to  Strabo  and  Pliny,  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Ked  Sea 
converted  the  enormous  carapaces  of  the  Tortoise  which  frequented 
their  shores  into  coverings  for  their  houses,  and  boats  for  paddling 
along  the  coast.  The  fat  of  many  species,  when  fresh,  is  used  as 
a  substitute  for  oil  and  butter.  When  the  musk-like  odour  of  this 
fatty  substance,  as  in  Chelonia  caouana  and  C.  caretta,  becomes 
too  repulsive  for  food,  it  is  employed  in  embrocations,  in  tanning 
leather,  or  in  lamps.  The  eggs  of  nearly  all  the  Turtles  are  sought 


Fig.  40.— Green  Turtle  (Chelonia  Mydas). 

after  for  their  flavour.  Finally,  the  carapace  of  several  species 
constitutes  a  valuable  material  much  employed  in  the  arts,  and 
known  as  tortoise-shell.  This  material  is  sought  after  in  con- 
sequence of  its  hardness  and  the  fine  polish  of  which  it  is  sus- 
ceptible, and  also  for  the  facility  with  which  it  is  worked.  It  has 
a  strong  resemblance  to  horn,  but  is  easily  distinguished  from 
it.  Though,  like  horn,  it  is  formed  of  parallel  fibres,  it  seems  to 
be  rather  the  result  of  exudation,  consisting  of  a  kind  of  solidified 
mucus.  Its  texture  is  homogeneous ;  it  can  be  cut  and  polished 
with  precision  and  beauty ;  in  short,  under  the  influence  of  a  gentle 


MODES  OF  CAPTUEING  TORTOISES.  175 

heat,  it  is  softened  and  can  be  modelled  into  any  fashion,  accord- 
ing to  the  taste  of  the  moulder ;  after  becoming  cool  it  retains 
the  desired  shape. 

While  most  of  the  Tortoises  are  highly  useful  to  man,  both  for 
food  and  other  purposes,  perhaps  the  most  interesting  are  the  Green 
Turtles  (Tortues  /ranches  of  French  authors),  Chelonia  caouana 
and  Caretta.  From  these  man  draws  the  greatest  advantage  from 
their  superior  size,  and  from  the  thickness  of  their  shells.  The  Green 
Turtle  ( Chelonia  My  das,  Fig.  40)  is  so  called  from  the  reflected 
green  of  its  carapace.  It  abounds  in  the  Southern  Atlantic  Ocean, 
where  it  keeps  habitually  far  from  the  shore,  except  in  the  breeding 
seasons,  when  it  makes  long  voyages  in  order  to  deposit  its  eggs, 
giving  a  preference  for  that  purpose  to  Ascension  Island  and 
St.  Vincent.  It  rests  on  the  surface  of  the  open  sea,  and  as 
it  sleeps  heavily,  it  is  easily  taken  by  a  cord  with  a  running 
knot,  which  is  carefully  slipped  round  its  neck  as  the  boat  con- 
taining the  captors  silently  glides  past.  It  is  even  said  to  be  a 
practice  with  the  Malay  fishermen  to  dive  beneath  them,  and  attach- 
ing a  cord  to  the  foot  of  a  sleeping  Turtle,  thus  take  it  alive. 

Many  other  modes  are  employed  for  capturing  them.  In  the 
regions  frequented  by  them  in  the  breeding  season,  they  are  fol- 
lowed by  their  track  on  the  sands,  and  their  retreat  cut  off,  when 
met  with,  by  forming  a  circle  round  them,  when  they  are  thrown  on 
their  backs  ;  hand- spikes  sometimes  being  necessary  to  accomplish 
this  from  their  great  size.  In  this  position  they  are  helpless,  and 
must  remain  until  wanted,  so  that  their  enemies  have  time  to  pursue 
their  sport  elsewhere,  as  represented  in  Fig.  41.  The  next  day  they 
are  collected  or  destroyed  at  leisure.  In  1802  the  crew  of  a  French 
ship  surprised  a  female  Turtle  on  the  Island  of  Lobos.  The  men  had 
infinite  trouble  in  making  good  its  capture  and  throwing  it  on  its 
back,  for  it  was  strong  enough  to  drag  them  all  towards  the  sea.  It 
was  at  last  mastered.  Its  head  was  as  large  as  that  of  an  infant,  and 
its  beak  four  times  the  size  of  a  paroquet.  It  weighed  two  hundred 
and  sixty  pounds,  and  had  in  its  body  three  hundred  and  forty- 
seven  eggs.  Turtles  are  also  taken  in  nets,  in  the  meshes  of  which 
their  beaks  and  flippers  get  entangled;  thus  prevented  from  coming 
to  the  surface  for  air,  they  die  of  asphyxia.  Others  harpoon  them 
on  the  open  sea  when  they  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe.  The 


176 


CHELONIANS. 


harpoon  is  attached  to  a  cord,  by  which  the  animal  is  soon 
brought  to  the  surface  and  drawn  into  the  boat.  But  the  com- 
monest mode  of  capture  is  approaching  them  in  a  boat  as  they 
float  asleep  on  the  surface — this  must  be  done  silently.  When 
within  reach,  a  back  flipper  is  laid  hold  of  by  one  of  the  crew,  and 
by  a  sudden  twist  the  Turtle  is  thrown  on  its  back,  when  becoming 
helpless  for  the  moment,  it  is  dragged  on  board. 

A  very  curious  mode  of  fishing  for  Turtle  is  pursued  by  means 
of  small  fish,  a  species  of  Echeneis  or  Eemora.  These  small  fish 
are  provided  with  an  oval  plate  on  the  head,  which  consists 
of  a  score  of  parallel  plates,  forming  two  series,  furnished  on  their 


Fig.  42.— Hawk's-biU  Turtle  (Chelonia  caretta). 

outer  edge  with  an  oval  disk,  soft  and  fleshy  at  its  circumference ; 
in  the  middle  of  this  plate  is  a  complicated  apparatus  of  bony 
pieces  dispersed  across  the  surface,  which  can  be  moved  on  their  axis 
by  particular  muscles,  their  free  edges  being  furnished  with  small 
hooks,  which  are  all  raised  at  once  like  the  points  of  a  wool-card. 
The  fishermen  keep  many  of  these  fishes  in  buckets  of  water. 
When  they  see  a  sleeping  Turtle  they  approach  it,  and  throw  one  of 
these  suck-fish  into  the  sea.  The  fish  dives  under  the  Turtle,  and  fixes 
itself  inextricably  to  it  by  means  of  their  cephalic  disk.  As  the  fish 
is  attached  to  a  long  cord  by  means  of  a  ring  in  its  tail,  the  fish 


HAWK'S-BILL  TURTLE. 


177 


is  drawn  on  board  along  with  its  victim.  This  is  line  fishing  of  a 
new  kind,  in  which  the  hook  is  living,  and  pursues  its  prey  in  the 
bosom  of  the  deep. 

The  Green  Turtle,  whose  flesh  is  celebrated  for  its  delicacy  and 
excellence  of  its  fat,  is  that  from  which  Turtle  soup  is  made.  Turtle 
soup  is  only  of  recent  invention,  the  first  Turtle  having  been 
brought  to  London  by  Admiral  Anson  in  1752.  It  was  long  a 
costly  dish,  and  even  now,  although  the  introduction  of  steam  and 
other  adjuncts  to  navigation  has  greatly  modified  the  expense, 
its  price  is  about  ten  shillings  per  pound  weight. 

Much  of  the  tortoise-shell  of  commerce  comes  from  the  Green 
Turtle,  but  by  far  the  finest  specimens  are  produced  by  the  Imbri- 
cated or  Hawk's-bill  Turtle,  Chelonia  caretta  (Fig.  42).  In  this 


Fig.  43. — Loggerhead  Turtle  (Chelonia  caouana). 

species  the  plates  of  the  disk  are  imbricated,  or  lapping  over  each 
other,  and  thirteen  in  number.  The  muzzle  is  long  and  compressed  ; 
the  jaws  with  straight  edges,  without  dentation,  curving  slightly 
towards  each  other  at  their  extremities,  with  two  nails  on  each 
fin.  It  rarely  attains  the  size  or  weight  of  the  Green  Turtle. 
The  Hawk's-bill  Turtle  is  met  with  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  also 
on  the  American  shores.  It  feeds  on  marine  plants,  on  mollusks, 
and  small  fishes,  and  is  chiefly  sought  after  for  its  shell,  which 
produces  the  finest  tortoise-shell  known  ;  while  its  flesh  is  rendered 

N 


178 


CHELONIANS. 


unpalatable  from  its  musky  flavour.     On  the  other  hand,  its  eggs 
are  excellent  when  fresh,  and  eagerly  sought  after. 

In  order  to  prepare  the  shell,  it  is  softened  by  means  of  boiling 
after  being  torn  from  the  animal's  back.  It  is  then  flattened  by 
being  passed  through  a  press,  previous  to  being  polished.  In 
this  condition  it  is  ready  for  all  sorts  of  ornamental  work.  The 
Loggerhead  Turtle,  or  C.  caouana  (Fig.  43),  like  the  Green 
Turtle,  has  its  scales  placed  side  by  side.  Its  colour  is  brownish 
or  deep  maroon.  It  is  found  incidentally  on  the  French  and 
English  coasts,  and  abounds  in  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean 
seas.  Its  length  is  about  four  feet ;  its  weight,  from  three  to  four 


Fig.  44.— Leather-back  or  Corded  Tortoise  (Spargis  coriacea). 

hundred  pounds.  It  is  very  voracious,  and  feeds  principally  on 
mollusks.  Its  shell  is  much  valued,  but  its  flesh  is  indifferent,  and 
its  fat  altogether  uneatable  ;  however,  it  is  used  in  some  localities 
to  make  lamp-oil. 

The  Leather-back  or  Corded  Tortoise,  Spargis  coriacea,  differs 
from  every  other  genus,  its  body  being  enveloped  in  a  coriaceous 
hide  ;  tuberculous  in  the  young,  perfectly  smooth  in  adults.  The 
feet  are  without  claws.  Seven  longitudinal  grooves  extend  from 
the  neck  to  the  tail,  which  remind  one  of  the  seven  chords  of  the 
ancient  lyre.  Only  one  species  of  Sphargis  is  known  (S.  coriacea, 


CO.EDED  TORTOISE.  179 

Fig.  44).  This  species  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  is,  with  the  Hawk's-bill  Tortoise,  the  only  species 
found  on  the  British  coast.  Its  body  is  a  light  brown,  with  the 
lines  of  the  carapace  fawn-colour ;  its  members  black,  edged  with 
yellow.  It  attains  the  length  of  six  to  eight  feet,  and  a  breadth 
of  about  one-fifth  of  the  length  :  it  sometimes  attains  the  weight  of 
fourteen  to  sixteen  hundred  pounds.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  un- 
wholesome, and,  on  being  eaten,  to  produce  severe  vomiting  and 
purging. 


BIRDS. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER. 

BIRDS  are  the  spoilt  children  of  nature — the  favourites  of  creation. 
Their  brilliant  plumag'e  often  assumes  the  most  resplendent 
colours.  They  have  the  happy  privilege  of  moving  in  space — now 
fluttering  through  the  air,  hunting  the  insect  which  flits  from 
flower  to  flower  ;  now  soaring  high  aloft,  and  swooping  upon  the 
victim  it  has  marked  for  its  prey ;  now  cleaving  the  atmosphere 
on  rapid  wing,  and  performing  journeys  of  vast  extent  with  great 
rapidity.  Mankind  have  a  profound  sympathy  with  these  little 
winged  beings,  which  charm  at  once  by  the  elegance  of  their  form, 
the  melody  of  their  song,  and  the  graceful  impetuosity  of  their 
movements. 

Anatomically  speaking,  birds  are  connected  with  the  Mammi- 
fera  by  their  internal  structure.  Their  skeleton  essentially 
resembles  that  of  the  Mammals,  the  bones  being  nearly  the  same, 
only  modified  slightly  for  the  purposes  of  flight. 

In  birds  there  is  a  double  circulation.  The  heart  consists  of 
two  moieties,  or  lobes,  known  as  the  auricle  and  ventricle.  It- 
is  conical  in  form,  and  occupies  the  anterior  part  of  the  thorax, 
its  apex  passing  between  the  lobes  of  the  liver  ;  but  there  is  little 
perceptible  distinction  between  auricles  and  ventricles.  Their 
blood  is  richer  in  globules  than  that  of  the  Mammalia,  being  more 
thoroughly  permeated  by  air ;  the  respiratory  function  is  also  more 
energetic,  from  the  same  cause — in  fact,  they  consume  a  larger 
quantity  of  oxygen,  and  produce  a  proportionately  greater  degree 
of  heat ;  for  while  their  lungs  are  small,  and  placed  in  the  upper 


ANATOMY  OF  BIEDS.  181 

part  of  the  thorax  only,  where  they  are  confined  on  each  side  to  a 
cavity,  bounded  above  by  the  ribs,  and  below  by  an  imperfect 
diaphragm,  they  are  perforated  by  tubes,  which  communicate 
with  membranous  cells,  distributed  over  the  thoracic  and  abdo- 
minal cavities,  between  the  muscles,  and  beneath  the  skin, — often 
in  all  parts  of  the  body.  What  distinguishes  the  bird,  in  fact,  is 
not  the  wing ;  for  -certain  of  the  Mammalia,  as  the  Bat,  and  even 
some  fishes,  as  the  Gusard  and  Exoccetus,  can  traverse  the  air  by 
expanding  their  wings.  In  birds  the  diaphragm  which  arrests 


Fig.  45.— Skeleton  of  the  Swan. 

the  air  in  the  Mammalia  is  scarcely  perceptible,  so  the  external 
air  penetrates  into  every  part  of  the  body  by  the  respiratory  tubes, 
which  ramify  the  whole  cellular  tissue,  the  interior  of  the  bones,  and 
even  the  feathers,  and  between  the  muscles.  Their  bodies,  dilated 
by  the  air  inhaled,  lose  a  proportionate  amount  of  weight ;  balloon- 
like,  they  float  in  the  air,  and,  from  their  peculiar  forms,  they 
can  swim,  so  to  speak,  in  any  direction  in  the  gaseous  element. 
Wings  alone,  then,  would  fail  to  support  the  bird  in  space. 


182 


INTEODUCTOEY  CHAPTEE. 


The  position  renders  a  double  system  of  breathing  necessary. 
Yital  heat  in  animals  is  always  in  proportion  to  their  respiration, 
for  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  which  penetrates  every  ceil  and  cavity 
of  their  bones,  feathers,  and  body,  warming  and  giving  increased 
activity  to  their  circulation,  and  specific  lightness  to  their  bodies, 

from  its  rich  organisation  enables 
birds  to  live  in  .the  coldest  atmo- 
spheric regions.  In  Fig.  46  the 
respiratory  organs  of  a  Pigeon  are 
represented.  The  trachea,  or  wind- 
pipe, is  composed  of  many  bony  rings, 
varying  in  different  species.  In  the 
Falcons  it  is  slightly  flattened,  and 
tapers  in  a  small  degree  ;  but  in  many 
genera  it  presents  dilatations  and 
contractions,  and  in  others  it  is  vari- 
ously curved,  two  slender  muscles, 
which  run  along  its  sides  towards  the 
sternum,  serving  to  contract  it.  In 
many  of  the  song-birds  several  pairs 
of  small  muscles  are  attached  to  the  lower  larynx  where  the  tube 
bifurcates,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  control  this  organ,  which 
is  the  producer  of  their  note. 

The  trachea  carries  the  air  to  the  lungs  in  a  Pigeon,  and  sepa- 


Fig   46. 


Fig.  47. 


rates  into  two  branches  in   the  breast,    where    it    abuts   on  the 
aerial  sacs,  and  on  the  two  lungs  (Fig.  47).     The  air  carried  by 


ANATOMY  OF  BIRDS.  183 

the  windpipe  acts  upon  the  blood  through  the  thin  substance 
of  the  cells  which  constitute  the  pulmonary  tissue,  in  which  it 
traverses  in  an  infinity  of  minute  vessels,  whose  thin  walls  are 
permeable  by  the  gas. 

The  lungs  are  small,  and  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
thorax,  where  they  are  confined  on  each  side  by  a  cavity  bounded 
above  by  the  ribs  and  below  by  an  imperfect  diaphragm ;  but  they 
are  perforated  by  tubes  which  communicate  with  membranous 
cells  distributed  over  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities,  between 
the  muscles,  beneath  the  skin,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  body — the 
air  even  penetrating  many  of  the  bones  when  the  species  are 
peculiarly  aerial  in  their  habits. 

The  external  form  of  birds  is  modified  so  as  to  be  subservient  to 
aerial  progression.  The  vertebral  column,  or  spine,  along  the 
centre  of  which  runs  the  spinal  cord,  is  divided  into  three  regions — 
the  cervical,  dorsal,  and  sacral  regions — terminating  in  the  caudal 
extremities,  the  number  of  vertebra,  or  pieces,  varying  much  in 
different  genera.  The  body  consists  of  the  dorsal,  sacral,  and 
caudal  parts  of  the  column ;  laterally,  of  the  ribs  and  pelvis ;  and 
beneath,  of  the  sternum  and  the  soft  parts  contained  in  it.  Its 
anterior  part,  containing  heart,  lungs,  and  liver,  is  named  the 
thorax  ;  the  posterior,  the  pelvis.  The  sternum,  with  the  clavicles 
and  scapulae,  is  perhaps  the  most  curiously  modified  part  of  the 
skeleton  of  birds. 

The  sternum,  then,  is  a  large  expanded  plate  extended  over  the 
whole  anterior  part  of  the  thorax,  and  even  covering  more  or  less 
what  may  be  considered  the  abdomen.  It  varies  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent genera ;  but  in  all  it  is  more  or  less  four- sided,  and  convex 
externally,  forming  the  basis  for  the  powerful  muscles  by  which 
the  wings  are  moved.  These  wings  serve  as  arms  by  which  the 
bird  guides  itself,  ascending  or  descending  according  to  the  im- 
pulse given  them.  "  That  the  anterior  form  of  birds  is  modified 
so  as  to  be  subservient  to  the  aerial  progression  for  which  these 
animals  are  intended/'  says  McGillivray,  "  is  obvious  and  intel- 
ligible. Their  bodies  are  oval,  with  the  more  powerful  muscles 
placed  on  the  breast,  so  that,  when  the  horizontal  position  is 
assumed,  the  centre  of  gravity  comes  between  the  wings,  and  is 
kept  near  the  lower  part  by  the  weight  of  the  pectoral  muscles. 


184 


1NTEODUCTOEY  CHAPTER. 


The  length,  and  flexibility  of  the  neck  enable  the  bird  to  make  the 
necessary  changes  in  the  centre  of  gravity,  while  the  solidity  of 
the  dorsal  spine  gives  advantage  to  the  action  of  the  muscles. 
The  head  is  terminated  by  a  pointed  bill,  which  aids  in  cleaving 
the  air ;  the  feet,  when  short,  are  drawn  up  and  concealed  under 


Fig.  48. 


the  feathers ;  when  long,  they  are  stretched  out  beneath  or  behind 
the  tail,  which  is  more  or  less  expanded,  and  helps  to  support 
the  body  in  the  air,  as  well  as,  by  acting  in  the  manner  of  a 


Fig.  49. 


rudder,  to  change  its  direction,  or,  by  being  expanded,  to  break 
its  descent." 

The  wings  of  birds  are  acute  or  obtuse.     The  more  angular  the 


Fig.  50. 

wing  of  birds — that  is  to  say,  the  longer  the  feathers  on  the  edge 
of  the  wing — the  more  rapidly  does  it  propel  itself  through  the 
air.  The  tail  consists  of  a  number  of  feathers,  to  which  are 
attached  a  series  of  small  muscles,  one  for  each  vertebra,  which 
are  capable  of  depressing  and  elevating  the  tail  in  various  degrees  ; 
while  a  series  of  connections,  whose  fibres  invest  the  base  of  the 


PLUMAGE.  185 

quills,  curve  round  the  edge  of  the  tail.  Their  action  is  to  spread 
out  the  tail-feathers,  and  incline  them  to  the  right  or  left ;  thus 
enabling  it  to  perform  the  part  of  a  helm  or  rudder  as  it  cleaves 
the  atmosphere. 

Besides  flight,  birds  possess  other  means  of  locomotion.  They 
are  formed  for  walking  or  for  swimming  as  well  as  for  flying, 
according  as  their  habits  are  aerial,  terrestrial,  or  aquatic.  Their 
general  form,  though  possessing  all  the  characteristics  of  the  class, 
is  modified  and  adapted  to  the  kind  of  life  they  are  intended  to 
lead.  Where  the  skin  of  a  bird  is  covered  with  feathers,  it  is 
observed  that  the  true  skin,  or  derma,  is  thin  and  transparent ; 
while  the  cuticle  is  thicker,  and  even  covered  with  scales,  in  those 
parts  where  feathers  are  absent. 

Before  addressing  ourselves  to  the  physiological  functions  of 
birds,  a  few  words  descriptive  of  their  feathers,  beaks,  and  claws 
will  not  be  out  of  place. 

The  covering  of  birds  is  known  by  the  general  name  of  plumage. 
It  is  composed  of  many  individual  feathers.  The  feathers  are 
horny  productions,  consisting  of  a  hollow  tube  or  barrel,  and  a 
stem  rising  from  it.  Chemically,  this  covering  is  of  the  same 
material  as  the  hair  on  Mammals  and  the  scales  on  reptiles  and 
fishes,  differing  only  in  its  mechanical  structure.  Besides  the  more 
conspicuous  feathers,  most  birds  have  an  underneath  covering  of 
smaller  ones  known  as  down-feathers.  A  feather  of  the  ordinary 
kind  consists  of  the  tube,  or  barrel,  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the 
skin,  varying  in  length  according  to  the  species ;  the  stem,  or 
shaft,  composed  internally  of  a  soft,  compact,  but  elastic  substance 
of  a  whitish  colour,  and  in  its  buoyancy  not  unlike  cork  ;  the  web, 
which  is  a  lateral  prolongation  of  the  external  coating  of  the  shaft, 
and  which  assumes  the  form  of  a  thin  linear  membrane  springing 
from  it  at  an  angle  more  or  less  acute  in  different  species :  this  is 
the  barb.  From  the  upper  edge  of  each  barb  two  sets  of  minute 
filaments  proceed  at  an  angle  similar  to  that  of  the  barb  itself  in 
respect  to  the  shaft.  These  smaller  filaments  are  the  barbules,  by 
means  of  which  the  barbs  are  retained  in  opposition — not  by  the 
barbules  of  one  barb  interlocking  with  those  of  another  in  the 
manner  of  dovetailing,  but  by  the  anterior  series  of  one  barb  over- 
lapping and  hooking  into  the  recurvate  formation  of  the  barb  next 


186 


INTEODUCTOEY  CHAPTEE. 


to  it  (Figs.  51,  52).  The  barbules  themselves  frequently  throw 
out  filaments  in  the  same  manner,  which  are  called  barbicels,  whose 
object  is  apparently  the  same — namely,  that  of  connecting  and 


Fig.  51.  Fig.  52. 

retaining  the  barbules  in  position.  These  may  be  observed,  by 
the  aid  of  a  small  magnifying  glass,  in  the  quills  of  the  Gfolden 
Eagle,  Aquila  chrysaetus. 

Feathers,  then,  consist  of  three  parts — the  tube,  the  shaft,  and 
the  webs  ;  the  webs  being  the  barbs  furnished  with  barbules,  some- 


Fig.  53.  ['Fig.  54.  ;Fig.  55.; 

times  barbicels.  They  are  convex  above,  and  are  thus  enabled  to 
resist  flexion  or  fracture  better  from  beneath  than  from  any  other 
direction.  They  are  also  elastic ;  and  this  property,  together  with 
their  curvature,  tends  to  keep  them  closer  together. 


FEATHERS.  187 

In  the  feathers  of  a  large  portion  of  birds  there  is  a  plumiform 
formation,  or  small  feather  or  plumule.  This  plumule  is  conspi- 
cuous in  gallinaceous  birds — for  instance,  the  Pheasants  (Fig.  53) ; 
it  springs  from  the  fore  part  of  the  tube,  just  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  shafts ;  it  gradually  narrows,  and  is  continued  in  the 
form  of  a  very  delicate,  thread-like  fibre ;  from  its  side  proceed 
two  series  of  barbs,  and  from  the  barbs  two  series  of  barbules, 
extremely  fine,  entirely  disunited,  and  very  loose.  This  plumule 
seldom  exists  among  aquatic  birds,  but  in  gallinaceous  fowls  it 
attains  the  length  of  two-thirds  of  the  feather,  and  in  the  Emu 
and  Cassowary  it  equals  it  in  length. 

Feathers  may  be  divided  into  those  specially  employed  as  the 
means  of  locomotion  and  those  intended  to  protect  the  bird  from 
extreme  cold.  The  former  are  much  stronger,  more  compact,  and 
more  elongated  than  the  others.  The  row  of  feathers  bordering 
the  wing  behind  is  known  as  the  alar  quills,  or  wing-quills,  and 
those  terminating  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  as  caudal  quills.  From 
the  head,  backwards  to  the  tail,  the  feathers  increase  in  strength 
and  size ;  those  on  the  face,  or  round  the  base  of  the  bill,  being 
smallest,  the  tail-coverts  longest.  Immediately  covering  the  base 
of  the  wing-quills  are  a  row  of  feathers  on  both  surfaces  of  the 
wing ;  these  are  the  quill-coverts. 

The  most  brilliant  feathers  are  found  in  birds  of  warm  climates, 
and  the  more  tropical  the  climate  the  more  dazzling  and  brilliant  is 
the  plumage.  In  many  species  the  brilliant  plumage  is  confined  to 
the  males,  while  that  of  the  females  is  dark  and  sombre.  In  other 
cases  it  is  the  same  in  both  sexes.  The  young  of  some  species 
attain  the  adult  appearance  after  the  first  moult ;  others  take 
several  years  to  acquire  their  full  splendour. 

Birds  cast  their  feathers  at  least  once  a  year,  in  order  to 
put  on  a  fresh  dress.  This  is  called  moulting — a  change  which 
usually  occurs  in  the  autumn,  but  sometimes  both  in  spring  and 
autumn.  During  the  moulting  season  birds  are  dull,  retiring, 
and  silent ;  but  when  they  emerge  from  this  state  they  proudly 
display  their  lively  colours,  which  now  rival  the  gayest  flowers  that 
surround  them. 

Among  the  gallinaceous  birds,  and  especially  among  the 
aquatic  species,  there  exist  over  the  coccyx  certain  receptacles 


188 


INTEODUCTOEY  CHAPTEE. 


from  which  is  distilled  the  oily  substance  with  which  they  lubri- 
cate their  plumage.  These  receptacles  are  known  as  the  uropygial 
glands.  On  the  lower  surface  is  a  layer  of  cellular  tissue  con- 
taining a  similar  fluid,  which  seems  to  be  connected  with  the 
growth  of  the  feathers. 

The  feet  of  birds  are  as  varied  in  different  species  as  are  their 
wings.  In  birds  of  prey  the  claws  are  powerful  and  hooked.  In 
some  the  foot  is  flat  and  the  claw  straight  and  adapted  for  walking 
(Figs.  56,  57,  58).  The  great  toe  is  generally  the  strongest, 


Fig.  56. 


Fig.  57. 


Fig.  58. 


but  this  is  not  an  absolute  law :  a  projection  which  is  found  on 
the  leg  of  some  birds,  and  is  designated  a  spur,  is  a  formidable 
weapon  in  some  species  (Figs.  59,  60).  Some  birds  walk  by 


Fig.  59. 


Tig.  60. 


bringing  their  feet  forward  alternately ;  others  by  a  simultaneous 
motion,  or  a  succession  of  leaps.  Some  run  with  great  velocity, 
while  others  walk  with  great  difficulty,  and  that  only  on  a  flat 
surface.  Many  have  their  toes  joined  by  thin  membranes,  which 
act  as  paddles  by  which  they  propel  themselves  through  the 
water. 

The  beak,  or  bill,  of  birds  is  composed  of  two  bony  pieces,  called 
mandibles,   surrounded  by   a  horny  substance,  differing  both  in 


BEAKS. 


189 


form  and  thickness  according  to  the  habits  of  the  species.  In  the 
genus  FALCO  the  bill  is  shorter  than  the  head ;  the  upper  mandible 
is  furnished  at  the  base  with  a  bare  coloured  skin,  of  a  peculiar 
dense  texture,  called  the  cere ;  its  outline  slightly  convex  as  far 
as  the  edge  of  the  cere  (Fig.  61),  then  curved  so  as  to  form  about 


Fig.  61. 

the  third  of  a  circle,  and  evidently  destined,  in  connection  with  its 
formidable  claws,  to  tear  its  prey. 

In  the  TOUCANS  RAMPHASTID^E  the  bill  is  half  a  foot  long, 
hollow  within,  thin,  and  nearly  transparent ;  and  the  mandibles 
are  so  disposed  as  to  combine,  with  their  great  bulk,  strength 
and  lightness,  and  assisting  by  their  digestive  power  to  assimilate 
both  animal  and  vegetable  food  (Fig.  62).  In  the  PELICANIDJE, 


as  in  the  Common  Cormorant,  Phalacrocorax  carlo,  the  bill  is 
long,  straight,  and  compound;  the  upper  mandible  curved 
towards  the  point,  the  lower  compressed ;  the  base  inserted  in  a 
small  membrane  which  extends  under  the  throat.  In  the  back 
part  of  the  head  is  an  additional  bone  (Fig.  63,  a),  attached  in 


Fig.  63. 


such  a  manner  to  the  occiput  as  to  admit  of  great  expansion,  which 
permits  of  its  swallowing  plaice  and  other  flat  fish  of  considerable 


190 


INTKODUCTOKY  CHAPTEE. 


size.  The  CRANE,  Grus  cinerea  (Fig.  64),  lias  the  bill  rather 
longer  than  the  head,  strong,  straight,  compressed,  and  pointed  at 
the  extremity ;  the  sides  of  the  mandible  deeply  channelled  with 
nostrils,  and  closed  backwards  by  a  thin  membrane. 


Fig.  64. 


In  the  Goose,  genus  Anser  (Fig.  65),  we  find  the  bill  short, 
not  longer  than  the  head,  conical,  covered  at  the  base  with  a  cerous 
skin,  with  under  mandible  smaller  than  the  upper.  In  the  Spar- 


rig.  65. 


rows,  Passerina  (Fig.  66),  the  bill  is  strong  and  conical,  the 
upper  mandible  slightly  curved,  the  lower  compressed  and  smaller 
than  the  upper ;  nostrils  lateral,  basal,  round,  and  partly  con- 


rig.  66. 


Fig.  67. 


cealed  by  the  short  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  mandibles.  In 
the  Goatsuckers,  Caprimulgus  (Fig.  67),  the  bill  is  remarkably 
small  and  weak,  the  sides  inflexed  and  sometimes  gaping. 

The  tongue,  like  the  bill,  however,  is  only  an  accessory  to  the 
digestive  apparatus  ;  for  while  the  beak  serves  the  purpose  of 
prehension  and  trituration,  the  tongue  assists  in  deglutition  or 
swallowing.  Digestion  is  so  active  in  some  birds,  that  they  get 
fat  in  an  excessively  short  space  of  time.  The  Ortolan  Bunting, 
Emberiza  hortulana,  and  some  others,  are  fattened  for  the  table  in 


DIGESTIVE  OEGANS. 


191 


five  or  six  days.  In  the  swelling  under  the  throat,  called  the 
crop,  a  (Fig.  68),  or  first  stomach,  which  is  largely  developed  in 
some  of  the  granivorous  or  grain- eating  birds,  the  food  remains 
for  a  time,  where  it  undergoes  certain  modifications  which 
facilitate  digestion ;  thence  it  passes  into  the  succenteric  ventricle, 
or  second  stomach,  b  (Fig.  68), — there  it  imbibes  the  necessary 
amount  of  gastric  juice  ;  being  finally  transformed  into  chyme  in 
the  gizzard,  c  (Fig.  68),  or  third  stomach, 
which  is  possessed  of  great  muscular  power, 
being  capable  of  acting  upon  the  most  solid 
bodies,  triturating  even  the  flints  and  gravel 
which  the  gallinaceous  birds  swallow  to  aid 
their  digestion. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  a  grain  of  seed, 
introduced  into  the  stomach,  may  be  digested 
without  alteration,  and  ejected  where  it  will 
germinate,  if  it  meets  with  no  obstacle  to  its 
vegetation.  In  this  manner  trees  are  fre- 
quently found  in  regions  where  their  species 
appear  to  have  been  previously  unknown. 

Chyle,  which  is  a  milky  fluid  formed  from 
the  junction  of  chyme  and  bile,  is  received 
by  the  small  intestine,  where  the  bile  also 
flows  from  the  liver  and  the  saliva  from  the 
pancreas. 

The  urinary  apparatus  consists  of  the  kid- 
neys, two  in  number,  thick  and  irregular,  and  distinct  one  from 
the  other,  abutting  on  the  intestine,  which  terminates  in  a  species 
of  pouch,  or  cloaca,  through  which  evacuation,  alternately  of  urine, 
excrement,  and  eggs,  takes  place. 

The  sense  of  touch,  of  smell,  of  taste,  and  hearing  are  only 
slightly  developed  in  birds.  Some  have  spoken  of  great  deli- 
cacy of  scent  in  birds  of  prey,  which  are  observed  to  assemble  in 
great  numbers  on  fields  of  battle  and  other  places  where  human 
carcasses  are  exposed.  But  the  opinions  of  naturalists,  such  as 
Audubon  and  Levaillant,  seem  to  prove  that  these  animals  were 
attracted  rather  by  the  sight  than  smell. 

The  organ  of  sight  is,  indeed,  more  highly  developed  in  birds 


192 


INTEODUCTOEY  CHAPTEE. 


than  in  any  other  class  of  animals.  The  volume  of  the  eye  itself 
is  large  compared  with  the  head.  It  includes  an  addition  which 
seems  to  be  confined  to  birds.  This  is  a  black  membrane,  with 
many  folds,  very  rich  in  blood-vessels,  and  situated  at  the  bottom 
of  the  ocular  globe,  and  advancing  towards  the  crystalline. 


Fig.  69. 

Anatomy  has  failed  to  explain  the  use  of  this,  but  it  is  sup- 
posed that  by  advancing  or  withdrawing  it,  it  gives  to  birds 
additional  power  of  vision.  Other  parts  of  the  eye,  such  as 
the  choroids,  the  thin  membrane  which  covers  the  posterior  part 
of  the  eye,  the  iris,  the  retina,  present  nothing  remarkable. 
The  white  of  the  eye  is  surrounded  by  an  osseous  or  cartilagi- 
nous matter,  evidently  placed  there  for  protection  of  this  delicate 
and  useful  organ. 


SIGHT  AND,  SWIFTNESS  OF  BIRDS.  193 

Besides  the  ordinary  upper  and  lower  pupils,  birds  possess  a 
third.  This  consists  of  an  extensive  transparent  membrane,  dis- 
posed vertically,  which  covers  the  eye  like  a  piece  of  network, 
protecting  it  from  the  effects  of  a  blaze  of  light.  It  is  this  pupil, 
or  nictating  membrane,  placed  at  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye, 
between  the  orb  and  the  external  pupil,  which  the  animal  uses  at  will, 
which  permits  the  Eagle  to  gaze  at  the  sun,  and  prevents  the  noc- 
turnal birds  of  prey  from  being  dazzled  when,  exposed  to  daylight. 

The  perfection  of  the  sight  of  birds  seems  to  be  proved  from 
the  Vulture,  so  distant  from  his  prey  as  to  appear  a  mere  speck 
in  the  heavens,  without  deviation  flying  directly  to  it ;  or  the 
Swallow,  which  perceives,  while  on  rapid  wing,  the  smallest 
insect  on  which  it  feeds.  According  to  Spallanzani,  the  Swift  has 
sight  so  piercing,  that  it  can  see  only  five  lines  in  diameter  at  the 
distance  of  five  hundred  feet. 

Birds,  of  all  animal  creation,  can  traverse  distances  with  the 
greatest  rapidity.  The  fleetest  among  the  Mammifera  cannot 
run  over  five  or  six  leagues  in  an  hour.  Certain  birds  easily 
traverse  their  twenty  leagues  in  the  same  interval  of  time.  In 
less  than  three  minutes  we  lose  sight  of  a  large  bird,  such  as  a 
Kite  or  an  Eagle,  whose  body  is  more  than  a  yard  from  wing  to 
wing.  It  is  assumed,  from  these  facts,  that  these  birds  traverse  more 
than  fifteen  hundred  yards  each  minute,  or  more  than  fifty  miles 
in  an  hour.  A  Falcon  of  Henri  II.  strayed  from  Fontainebleau 
in  pursuit  of  a  Bustard ;  it  was  taken  the  next  day  at  Malta. 
Another  Falcon,  sent  from  the  Canaries  to  the  Duke  de  Lermes, 
in  Spain,  returned  from  Andalusia  to  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe  in  six 
hours — the  flight  representing  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
leagues.  In  short,  the  whole  organisation  gives  to  a  bird  that 
remarkable  lightness  which  contributes  so  much  to  its  velocity.  Not 
to  speak  of  the  feathers  with  which  it  is  covered,  its  bones  are  hollow 
and  form  large  cells,  called  aerial  sacs,  which  it  is  able  to  fill 
with  air  at  will,  and  its  sternum  is  furnished  with  a  bony  frame 
or  breast-bone,  formed  somewhat  like  the  keel  of  a  ship,  into 
which  the  pectoral  muscles  are  inserted — which,  besides  being 
largely  developed,  in  birds  of  flight  possess  remarkable  contractile 
properties. 

The  vocal  apparatus  in  birds,  represented  in  Figs.  70  and  71, 


194  INTBODUCTOKY  CHAPTER 

is  very  complicated,  and  differs  from  the  human  larynx  and  trachea. 
It  consists  of  a  kind  of  osseous  chamber ;  which,  however,  is  only 
a  swelling  in  the  arterial  trachea  at  the  point  where  it  bifurcates 
and  enters  the  breast  to  form  the  bronchial  tube.  It  is  this 
formation,  called  the  lower  larynx,  which  constitutes  the  organ  of 
song.  Five  pairs  of  muscles,  attached  to  the  walls  of  this  chamber, 
stretch  or  relax  the  vocal  chord,  by  which  means  they  enlarge 


Fig.  70.  Fig.  71. 

or  diminish  the  cavity  of  the  larynx.  Whoever  has  watched  any 
song-bird  singing  must  have  noted  the  swelling  and  contracting 
of  its  throat  as  it  poured  out  its  melody,  modifying,  in  a  thousand 
ways,  the  tension  of  the  vocal  chords  and  of  the  larynx,  and 
producing  those  marvellous  modulations  whose  perfection  must 
always  be  a  subject  of  astonishment  and  admiration. 

The  song  of  birds  must  be  the  expression  of  some  sentiment ; 
they  surely  sing  as  much  for  their  own  pleasure  as  to  charm  those 
who  listen  to  them.  While  they  fill  the  woods  with  their  melo- 
dious accents  they  direct  their  looks  on  all  sides,  as  if  proud  of 
their  talents,  and  desirous  of  gathering  the  tribute  of  admiration 
to  which  they  feel  themselves  entitled.  Their  song  varies  with 
the  season,  but  it  is  in  the  early  spring  their  efforts  are  the  most 
successful,  and  we  are  most  disposed  to  admire  the  beauty  and 
harmony  of  their  voices.  Can  anything  be  more  delicious  than 
the  warbling  of  the  Linnet,  the  piping  of  the  Goldfinch,  slowly 
swelling  from  their  leafy  bower,  or  the  melodious  cadence  of  the 
Nightingale,  as  it  breaks  the  silence  of  the  woodland  during  the 
serene  nights  of  leafy  June  ? 

Our  landscape  would  be  sad  and  mute  indeed  without  these 


THE  SONG  OF  BIRDS.  195 

graceful  inhabitants  of  the  air,  which  give  so  much  animation  to 
country  life  and  solitary  rambles.  In  the  silence  of  night,  when 
all  nature  sleeps  and  life  seems  suspended,  all  at  once  certain 
notes  of  harmony  rise  from  under  the  dense  foliage,  as  if  to  pro- 
test against  the  universal  silence.  It  is  sometimes  a  plaintive 
cry,  prolonged  into  a  stifled  sigh,  now  a  continuous  warbling, 
now  a  lively  song,  gay  and  melodious,  which  the  whole  forest  re- 
echoes to. 

When  the  darkness  of  night  gives  place  to  the  first  dawn  of 
day — when  the  soft  gleam  of  Aurora  has  appeared  on  the  horizon, 
all  is  transformed,  all  is  vivified  on  the  new-born  earth,  lately 
asleep  and  apparently  deserted.  The  larger  birds  rise  higher 
and  higher  in  the  air,  till  they  are  lost  in  the  clouds.  The  small 
birds  hop  from  branch  to  branch  with  joyous  gambols,  commu- 
nicating a  movement  of  happiness  and  content  over  all  nature. 
What  a  wonderful  variety  of  music  issues  from  them — what 
dazzling  brilliancy  and  variety  deck  their  plumage  —  what  a 
charm  pervades  the  whole  scene,  enlivened  by  these  living  flowers 
flitting  about  in  intense  enjoyment,  hovering,  traversing,  and 
embellishing  the  air  !  Be  it  a  Titmouse,  which  seems  to  spend  its 
life  suspended  from  the  branch  of  a  tree ;  or  the  Fly  Catcher, 
on  the  other  hand,  always  perched ;  the  Lark,  performing  its 
graceful  circles  in  the  air  as  it  rises  higher  and  higher,  pouring 
forth  its  melodious  song  more  vigorously  with  each  circle  described ; 
the  Thrush,  which  runs  along  the  grassy  path,  watching  for  its 
prey,  or  the  House  Sparrow  chirping  from  the  straw-built  roof,  or 
the  Robin  warbling  from  some  leafless  bower — how  completely  the 
little  winged  wanderers  decorate  the  landscape  and  improve  the 
picture  with  their  innocent  gambols  ! 

Assuredly  birds  have  a  language  which  they  alone  comprehend. 
When  danger  threatens  them,  a  particular  cry  is  uttered  by  one, 
and  immediately  all  of  the  same  species  hide  themselves  until 
their  fears  are  dispelled  and  confidence  restored.  When  the  pre- 
sence of  a  bird  of  prey  is  announced  by  the  plaintive  cry  of  the 
Thrush,  all  the  feathered  race  of  the  neighbourhood  are  hushed 
into  silence. 

Birds  of  prey  with  carnivorous  instincts  live  in  the  most  solitary 
places.  The  Eagle  lives  alone  with  his  mate  in  some  unapproach- 

o2 


196  INTEODUCTOEY  CHAPTEE. 

able  aerie,  his  nest  placed  on  the  side  of  some  steeply- scarped 
mountain,  or  perhaps  hidden  in  the  depth  of  some  inaccessible 
ravine,  whence  they  sally  forth  to  visit  some  distant  region  in 
search  of  prey. 

It  is  very  difficult  for  us  to  appreciate  the  degree  of  intelligence 
exhibited  by  birds.  In  the  Mammifers,  whose  organisation  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  that  of  man,  we  are  enabled  partially  to  com- 
prehend their  joys  and  griefs ;  but  in  the  case  of  birds  we  are 
reduced  to  conjecture  in  order  to  arrive  at  an  estimate  of  their 
sensations.  To  explain  this  profound  mystery  a  word  has  been 
invented  which  satisfies  easy  minds  :  we  call  the  sentiment  which 
leads  birds  to  perform  many  admirable  actions  which  are  related 
of  them,  instinct.  The  tenderness  of  the  mother  for  her  young — 
a  tenderness  so  full  of  delicacy  and  foresight — is,  we  say,  only  the 
result  of  instinct.  It  is  agreed  on  all  hands,  however,  that  this 
instinct  singularly  resembles  the  intelligence  called  reason,  and, 
in  the  opinion  of  many,  is  nothing  else. 

Eeproduction  in  birds  occurs  at  intervals  regulated  by  nature, 
and  they  are  distinguished,  above  all  other  creatures,  for  the 
fidelity  of  their  affections.  It  is  frequently  a  matter  of  observa- 
tion that  a  male  attaches  itself  to  a  female,  and  they  henceforth 
live  together  till  the  death  of  one  or  both ;  and  many  affecting 
scenes  are  described  where  death  has  overtaken  one  of  the  affec- 
tionate pair.  When  the  breeding  season  approaches,  the  habits 
of  the  female  are  modified ;  she  abandons  her  former  freedom,  and, 
having  laid  her  eggs,  she  passes  her  whole  time  in  incubation, 
defying  hunger  and  all  other  dangers,  apparently  well  instructed 
in  the  fact  that  the  equal  and  prolonged  heat  communicated  by 
their  contact  with  her  body  is  necessary  to  hatch  them.  During 
the  period  of  incubation  the  male,  in  most  instances,  watches 
the  female,  and  supplies  her  with  food  ;  afterwards  the  little  ones 
are  waited  on  by  both  the  parent  birds  with  the  tenderest  care 
until  they  finally  attain  the  use  of  their  wings. 

The  solicitude  of  birds  for  their  young  is  first  manifested  in  the 
choice  of  the  locality  for  the  nest,  and  in  the  care  with  which  this 
cradle  of  their  progeny  is  constructed.  But  all  this  disappears 
when  the  young  no  longer  require  the  maternal  protection. 

In  spring,  when  the  birds  have  paired,  they  set  themselves  to 


BIBBS'  NESTS. 


197 


work  at  once  to  collect  the  necessary  materials  for  their  nest. 
Each  carries  its  blade  of  grass  or  stem  of  moss.  Large  birds  con- 
tent themselves  with  a  coarser  structure  —  chips  of  wood,  or 
branches  of  trees  interlaced  with  twigs,  lined  with  hair  and  other 
soft  materials,  are  fashioned  into  the  necessary  shape.  But  the 
smaller  species  really  display  great  art  in  framing  their  miniature 
dwelling,  which  they  furnish  inside  with  wool,  blades  of  grass, 
or  down,  the  male  and  female  labouring  in  the  common  work. 
Their  effort  is  to  make  a  soft,  warm,  and  solid  bed  on  which 
to  deposit  the  coming  eggs.  The  mother-bird  has  recourse 
to  all  sorts  of  cunning  devices  in  order  to  conceal  her  nest 


Fig.  72. 


Fig.  73. 


from    prying    eyes,    choosing   for   this   purpose   the   heart   of  a 
leafy  bush,  the  forked  limb,  the  concealed  crack  or  hollow  in  the 


Fig.  74.  Fig.  75. 

trunk  of  a  tree,  the  chimneys  of  a  house,  crevices  in  a  wall 
or  under  a  roof.  Curiously  enough,  the  nests  of  the  same 
species  are  always  fashioned  in  precisely  the  same  manner. 


198 


INTKODUCTOEY  CHAPTEE. 


The  Kinglet,  or  Wren  (Fig.  72),  builds  its  nest  under  a  bank,  gene- 
rally near  some  brook ;  it  is  neatly  formed  of  moss,  nearly  covered 
with,  leaves,  and  lined  with  small  feathers,  hair,  and  wool.  In  this 
nest  the  smallest  of  our  native  birds  lays  six  delicate  little  white 
eggs,  marked  with  small  pink  spots.  The  Humming-birds  (Fig. 
73),  which  flit  about  in  tropical  woods,  build  their  nests  of  grass, 
lined  with  feathers.  The  House  Sparrow  (Fig.  74)  builds  its  nest 
under  the  eave  of  some  house ;  while  the  Hedge  Sparrow  (Fig. 
74)  chooses  the  fork  of  a  hawthorn- tree  in  which  to  construct  its 
children's  home.  The  Magpie,  more  ambitious,  constructs,  in  the 
topmost  fork  of  some  tall  ash,  or  poplar,  or  elm,  its  nest  of  branches 
interlaced  with  twigs,  and  lined  with  fine  grass,  hair,  and  other 
soft  materials  (Fig.  75).  It  is  a  large  and  consequently  a  con- 
spicuous fabric,  elliptical  in  form,  composed  first  of  rough  boughs, 
on  which  is  laid  a  quantity  of  mud,  and  then  a  layer  of  twigs,  the 
whole  lined  with  fibrous  roots  and  other  soft  material.  The  Gold- 


\  \ 


Fig.  77. 

finch  builds  its  nest  on  trees  ;  it  is  composed  of  grass,  moss,  and 
lichens,  and  lined  with  the  down  of  various  plants  and  such  other 
soft  material  as  comes  in  its  way,  elaborately  interwoven  with 
wool  and  hair  (Fig.  76). 

The  Owl,  Strix Jiammea,  chooses  her  nest  in  some  obscure  nook 
of  an  old  tower,  the  steeple  of  a  church,  a  dovecot,  or  the  hollow 
of  an  aged  tree  (Fig.  77).  It  is  composed  of  twigs  and  straws 
loosely  arranged. 

Some  birds  form  into  a  sort  of  coarse  tissue  the  fibres  of  which 


NEST  OF  TAILOR  BIRD.  199 

they  construct  their  nest,  which  has  procured  them  the  name  of 
Weaver  Birds.  The  nest  of  Fondia  erythrops  occupies  the  centre 
of  a  bundle  of  reeds  growing  in  shallow  water,  in  which  various 
grasses  are  roughly  interwoven  in  the  form  of  a  cupola.  The 
Black-headed  Synalaxis,  S.  melanops  (Bonaparte),  constructs  a 
more  delicate  fahric,  but  remarkable  for  its  strength.  It  builds 
its  nest  with  grasses,  interlacing  them  in  a  firm  and  inextricable 
web ;  the  form  is  globular,  and  the  entrance  is  a  small  hole  in  one 
of  its  sides.  The  Orioles  and  Cassiques  of  the  New  World  cannot 
be  passed  without  noticing  their  wonderful  skill  in  nest  construc- 
tion. The  nest  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole  forms  a  perfect  family 
pouch,  which  it  suspends  from  the  upper  branches  of  a  shrub  or 
tree.  The  nest  of  Cassicus  hcemorrhous  (Cuvier)  consists  of  dry 
grasses  woven  into  long  sacks,  gradually  increasing  in  size  towards 
the  bottom,  with  an  elongated  slit  in  the  side  ;  this  is  so  con- 
structed as  to  exclude  rain  from  the  nest.  These  wonderful 
structures  are  sometimes  two  yards  in  length  ;  and  when  these 
birds  are  numerous  in  the  country,  the  nests,  as  they  hang 
suspended  from  the  branches  of  trees,  give  a  singularly  novel 
aspect  to  the  landscape. 

Not  less  curious  is  the  nest  of  the  Tailor  Bird,  Orthotonia  (Fig. 
78),  which  is  formed  of  a  large  leaf,  the  two  sides  of  which  the 
bird  has  contrived  to  sew  together ;  in  the  interior  is  placed  the  nest. 
Miraculous  indeed  is  the  produce  of  these  little  workers.  The 
wonder  is  how  the  birds  contrive  to  enter  a  nest  on  the  wing  when 
the  opening  seems  scarcely  so  large  as  the  bird's  body,  and  yet  it 
enters  without  disturbing  a  fibre.  The  hut  of  some  savage  races 
is  left  constantly  open,  their  intelligence  not  suggesting  a  pro- 
tecting door.  The  Spiders  are  more  ingenious.  They  contrive 
to  close  the  entrance  to  their  dwellings,  while  the  door  is  left 
habitually  open  ;  some  birds  adopt  analogous  precautions.  In  M. 
Jeudon's  book  on  the  Birds  of  India,  he  reports  a  curious  arrange- 
ment of  a  species  of  Homrain:  when  the  female  of  this  bird 
begins  to  lay,  the  male  encloses  her  in  their  nest  by  shutting  up 
the  door  with  a  thick  mud  wall,  leaving  only  a  small  opening  by 
which  the  female  can  breathe  and  receive  her  food  from  the  male 
bird's  bill ;  for  this  severe  husband  is  not  forgetful  of  his  duties,  but 
every  few  minutes  conveys  some  morsel  to  the  enclosed  prisoner. 


200 


INTBODUCTOEY  CHAPTEE. 


Sonnerat,  in  his  "  Yoyage  to  India,"  speaks  of  a  Cape  Tit,  the 
nest  of  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  bottle,  and  composed  of  cotton. 
While  the  female  hatches  the  eggs,  the  male,  like  a  true  sentinel, 
maintains  a  strict  watch  on  a  specially- formed  resting-place, 
built  on  one  of  the  sides.  Finally,  for  ingenious  construc- 
tion, instigated  by  affection  for  its  progeny,  there  is  nothing 
to  compare  to  the  work  of  the  Republican  (Fig.  79).  This  little 
bird  of  the  Cape,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  Sparrow,  which  it 
much  resembles,  lives  in  numerous  families,  that  unite  in  forming 
immense  colonies.  Their  dwellings  have  the  appearance  of  a 
circular  framework  surrounding  the  trunk  of  some  large  tree, 
as  represented  beneath.  Levaillant  counted  as  many  as  three 
hundred  cells,  which  indicate  that  it  is  inhabited  by  six  hundred 


Fig.  78. 


1'ig.  79. 


birds.  These  nests  are  so  heavy  that  Levaillant  was  compelled 
to  employ  a  cart  with  many  men  in  transporting  one  of  their 
colonies.  At  a  distance  they  resemble  great  roofs  attached  to  the 
trunks  or  branches  of  trees,  on  which  hundreds  of  birds  sport  and 
enjoy  themselves.  Further,  the  Oriole  suspends  its  basket-like 
nest  by  a  twig  at  the  extremity  of  a  flexible  branch,  placing  it 
thus  beyond  the  reach  of  any  prowling  four-footed  ravisher.  The 
Magpie  selects  the  topmost  fork  of  the  loftiest  trees.  Again,  the 
nest  of  the  esculent  Eastern  Swallow,  the  one  so  much  sought 
after  by  gourmands,  hangs  from  those  cliffs  washed  by  the  sea. 


HATCHING.  201 

and  is  constructed  of  ajucus,  or  marine  plant,  of  the  genus  Geli- 
dium,  which  gelatinous  substance,  cemented  by  the  saliva  of  the 
bird,  forms  a  sort  of  paste  of  most  delicate  flavour. 

When  this  nest  is  built,  and  the  walls  properly  cemented,  and 
the  home  of  the  little  brood  prepared,  the  eggs  are  laid  and  the 
process  of  hatching  commences.  Eggs  are  generally  numerous  in 
inverse  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bird.  The  Eagle  lays  two,  for 
instance,  while  the  Titmouse  (Parus)  lays  from  twelve  to  eighteen. 

The  eggs  laid,  the  female  must  now  submit  to  the  long  and 
painful  labour  of  incubation.  While  the  male  lies  in  wait  in  the 
neighbouring  bush  to  defend  his  young  brood  against  any  enemy 
which  may  present  itself,  giving  battle  to  much  larger  animals 
if  they  venture  to  attack  his  nest,  the  female  only  quits  her  charge 
for  necessary  food,  and  her  place  is  often  occupied  during  her 
absence  by  her  mate.  Enemies  that  lie  in  wait  are  numerous. 
Among  them  may  be  enumerated  birds  of  prey,  small  quadrupeds, 
reptiles  which  treacherously  insinuate  themselves  into  the  nest, 
and  perhaps  more  unfeeling  than  all,  children  with  destructive 
instincts. 

If  nothing  occurs  to  disturb  the  repose  of  the  pair,  the  male, 
perched  upon  a  neighbouring  branch,  pours  out  a  song  expressive 
of  his  felicity.  The  little  ones  are  finally  hatched.  Helpless  and 
incapable,  without  feathers  and  with  closed  eyes,  they  are  utterly 
dependent  on  the  parent  birds,  by  which  they  are  fed  until  the 
time  when  they  are  covered  with  feathers.  They  now  begin  to 
try  their  wings,  and  find  their  own  food.  The  mother  directs 
their  first  efforts,  uttering  a  peculiar  cry  to  attract  them  when  she 
discovers  a  favourite  morsel ;  defending  them  courageously,  and, 
with  a  total  abnegation  of  self,  meeting  the  most  formidable 
enemies ;  sometimes  going  so  far  for  their  protection  as  to  offer 
herself  a  victim.  How  pitiful  are  the  cries  of  a  Swallow  whose 
nest  is  built  under  the  roof  of  a  house  on  fire !  Fearlessly  she 
rushes  on  the  flames,  flying  to  the  assistance  of  her  young,  as  if 
she  would  rescue  them  or  perish  under  the  fatal  roof.  Or  mark 
the  unhappy  Partridge  which  the  sportsman  has  surprised  on  the 
nest.  She  hesitates  not  to  offer  herself  a  sacrifice,  throwing  her- 
self almost  under  the  intruder's  feet,  in  order  to  attract  his  atten- 
tion from  her  progeny. 


202  INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER. 

When  the  young  are  strong  enough  to  take  wing,  they 
abandon  the  family  tie,  and  soon  lose  themselves  in  the  great 
world  of  nature,  forgetful  of  their  parents'  unselfish  care.  The 
ingratitude  of  their  first-born  does  not,  however,  discourage  the 
forsaken  couple.  With  the  returning  season  they  renew  their 
labours,  exhibit  the  same  solicitude,  the  same  affection,  to  meet 
with  the  same  return.  Nature  is  an  unfailing  source — an  eternal 
focus  of  tenderness  and  love. 

Most  families  of  birds  are  migratory;  that  is,  they  abandon  their 
summer  quarters  and  undertake  long  journeys  at  certain  seasons. 
These  migrations  occur  with  the  greatest  regularity.  By  their 
departure  from  temperate  or  cold  climates  they  prognosticate  the 
approach  of  winter,  as  their  return  heralds  spring.  Among 
the  ancient  Greeks,  as  we  learn  from  a  passage  of  Aristophanes 
on  birds,  the  arrival  of  the  CRANE  pointed  out  the  time  of  sow- 
ing ;  the  arrival  of  the  KITE  the  sheep- shearing  season ;  and  the 
arrival  of  the  SWALLOW  in  Greece  was  the  date  for  putting  off 
summer  clothing.  The  impulse  which  causes  birds  to  depart  is 
an  instinctive  desire  to  find  climatic  conditions  appropriate  to  their 
wants  of  life.  At  the  approach  of  winter  they  desert  the  regions  of 
the  north  in  search  of  southern  countries  with  a  warmer  climate, 
while  others  migrate  northwards  to  escape  the  heat. 

Nevertheless,  all  birds  are  not  migratory ;  many  species  remain 
during  their  whole  lives  in  the  locality  where  they  were  hatched, 
straying  but  little  distance  from  their  birth-place.  The  majority  of 
those  which  migrate  perform  their  journeys  annually  and  with 
great  regularity ;  a  few  irregularly  and  accidentally  ;  that  is,  they 
are  caused  by  necessity,  or  by  atmospheric  influences,  to  change 
their  residence ;  and  it  is  no  unusual  sight  on  such  occasions  to 
see  numerous  flocks  of  birds  assembling  under  the  leadership  of  a 
chief,  and  taking  their  flight  in  perfect  order,  traversing  seas, 
and  passing  from  one  continent  to  another,  with  astonishing 
rapidity.  On  the  22nd  of  September,  1771,  White,  of  Selborne, 
witnessed  the  flight  of  a  flock  of  Swallows  which  had  rendez- 
voused the  night  before  in  a  neighbour's  walnut-tree.  "  At  dawn 
of  what  was  a  very  foggy  day,  they  arose  all  together  in  infinite 
numbers,  occasioning  such  a  rustling  from  the  strokes  of  their 
wings  against  the  hazy  atmosphere  that  the  sound  might  be  heard  at 


LONGEVITY  OF  BIRDS.  203 

a  considerable  distance."  In  the  Old  World,  choosing  a  time  when 
the  winds  are  favourable,  most  migratory  birds  direct  their  flight 
towards  the  south-west  in  the  autumn,  and  the  north-east  in 
spring.  In  America  the  migratory  birds  take  a  south-east  direc- 
tion in  autumn,  and  the  reverse  in  spring.  These  aerial  travellers 
instinctively  direct  their  flight  to  the  same  regions — often  to  the 
same  district ;  and  there  are  good  grounds  to  believe  that  the  same 
pair  frequently  find  their  way  year  after  year  to  the  same  nest. 

The  duration  of  the  life  of  birds  in  a  state  of  nature  is  one  of  those 
subjects  on  which  little  is  known.  Some  ancient  authors — Hesiod 
and  Pliny,  for  example — give  to  the  Crow  nine  times  the  length 
of  life  allotted  to  man,  and  to  the  Raven  three  times  that  period  ; 
in  other  words,  the  Carrion  Crow,  according  to  these  authors,  attains 
to  seven  hundred  and  twenty  years,  and  the  Raven  two  hundred 
and  forty.  The  Swan,  on  the  same  authority,  lives  two  hundred 
years.  This  longevity  is  more  than  doubtful.  Paroquets,  how- 
ever, are  known  to  have  reached  more  than  a  hundred.  Goldfinches, 
Chaffinches,  and  Nightingales  unquestionably,  even  in  the  con- 
finement of  a  cage,  have  lived  four- and- twenty  years.  A  Heron, 
GKrardin  tells  us,  lived  fifty- two  years,  which  was  testified  by 
the  ring  which  he  bore  on  one  of  his  legs,  and  even  then 
he  lost  his  life  by  an  accident,  while  in  full  vigour.  A  couple  of 
Storks,  moreover,  have  been  known  to  nestle  in  the  same  place  for 
more  than  forty  years.  All  that  we  can  affirm  is  that  birds  live 
much  longer  than  the  Mammalia. 

We  can  easily  fix  a  circumscribed  geographical  boundary  to  any 
species  of  Mammalia.  They  may  be  limited  to  a  country,  or  even 
a  district.  Can  we  impose  a  like  distribution  on  birds  ?  At  first 
sight  this  seems  difficult :  their  powerful  organs  of  locomotion 
permit  of  their  travelling  rapidly ;  and,  moreover,  their  nature, 
essentially  mobile,  and  their  wandering  humour,  lead  them  to 
continual  change;  and  then  their  organisation  adapts  them  for 
great  extremes  of  temperature — circumstances  which  would  lead 
us  to  consider  them  quite  cosmopolite.  Nevertheless,  many  species 
reside  habitually  in  countries  of  very  limited  range.  A  Sovereign 
Hand  has  traced  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  limits  that  cannot 
be  passed.  How  such  small  creatures  are  able  to  perform  such  dis- 
tant journeys,  pausing  only  at  far-severed  resting-places  for  neces- 


204  INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER. 

saries,  lias  always  been  a  matter  of  surprise.  They  pass  on  without 
an  instant's  sleep,  however  long  and  fatiguing  the  route.  How 
can  the  Quail,  for  instance,  with  its  short  wing  and  plump  body, 
traverse  the  Mediterranean  twice  in  the  year  ?  Hasselquist  tells 
us  that  small  short- winged  birds  frequently  came  on  board  his 
ship  in  squally  weather,  all  the  way  from  the  Channel  to  the 
Levant ;  and  Prince  Charles  Bonaparte  was  agreeably  surprised 
by  the  visit  of  a  party  of  Swallows  to  the  ship  Delaware,  in  which 
he  was  a  passenger,  when  five  hundred  miles  from  the  coast 
of  Portugal,  and  four  hundred  from  Africa.  Audubon  relates 
a  similar  occurrence  ;  and  numerous  instances  are  recorded  in 
which  these  fatigued  travellers  have  taken  shelter  in  the  first 
fisherman's  boat  they  met,  sometimes  so  weak  as  to  be  hardly 
able  to  move  a  wing.  It  is  therefore  a  fact  truly  inexplicable, 
in  spite  of  every  hypothesis,  more  or  less  reasonable,  which  has 
been  advanced  by  naturalists  in  explanation. 

Men  have  little  influence  over  birds,  and  have,  therefore,  few 
opportunities  of  studying  their  habits  in  a  state  of  nature.  Some 
few  species  may  be  retained  in  captivity,  and  some  observers 
have  been  able  to  obtain  their  entire  confidence  while  in  that 
condition ;  but,  except  two  or  three  species,  it  has  not  been  pos- 
sible to  reduce  them  to  a  state  of  domestication.  Our  knowledge 
of  the  habits  and  manners  of  the  feathered  race  is,  therefore, 
entirely  dependent  on  chance  observation. 

The  Humming-bird  is  confined  to  certain  portions  of  America. 
The  Nightingale,  if  a  visitor  to  Scotland,  is  only  found  in  Ber- 
wick and  Dumfriesshire  in  fine  seasons,  while  it  is  constantly 
seen  in  Sweden,  a  country  much  colder  and  much  more  northerly. 
The  Toucans,  so  brilliant  in  plumage,  are  only  found  in  tropical 
South  America.  The  Swallow,  so  rapid  on  the  wing,  clearing 
its  twenty  leagues  an  hour  when  it  leaves  us  for  its  southern 
winter  quarters,  never  deviates  from  the  route  which  seems  to 
have  been  traced  for  it  by  a  Sovereign  Master. 

It  may,  then,  be  stated  that  the  great  zones  of  the  earth  differ 
as  much  in  birds  as  in  the  Mammifers  found  in  them.  We 
find  in  climatic  regions  birds,  or  groups  of  birds,  of  per- 
fectly distinct  species,  and  which  are  rarely  found  beyond  that 
particular  zone.  Glancing  at  the  various  countries  forming  a 


UTILITY  OF  BIRDS.  205 

region,  particular  types  of  birds  are  easily  recognised.  Africa, 
for  instance,  alone  possesses  the  Great  Ostrich,  while  only  a 
small  species  exists  in  America  —  the  Rhea ;  the  Emu  repre- 
sents the  genus  in  Australia.  Africa  has  species  brilliant  as 
the  most  precious  stones.  To  America  belong  exclusively  the 
Humming-birds,  so  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  their  plumage. 
Again,  if  Africa  is  the  country  of  the  Vulture,  to  America  belongs 
the  Condor. 

Nevertheless,  the  acclimatisation  of  birds  is  by  no  means  beyond 
our  power.  Experience  proves  that  by  carrying  a  bird  far  from 
its  native  country,  and  placing  it  in  conditions  approaching  those 
to  which  it  has  been  accustomed,  it  will  live  and  multiply — accli- 
mate itself,  in  short,  to  its  new  home. 

Europe  possesses  no  ornithological  type  peculiar  to  it.  It  is 
only  in  Africa  and  America  that  we  find  those  rich  varieties  of 
form  and  colour  which  characterise  the  feathered  race.  The 
Island  of  Madagascar  is  the  land  which  possesses  the  greatest 
number  of  ornithological  types — simply,  perhaps,  because  that 
island  abounds  in  species  whose  rudimentary  wings  do  not  permit 
of  their  wandering  away.  Whatever  the  cause,  however,  the 
species  found  there  are  not  obtained  elsewhere.  Here  we  find 
the  unique  Dodo,  a  form  of  animal  which  became  extinct  in 
Europe  in  the  last  century. 

There  is  a  wonderful  charm  of  companionship  in  birds — they 
give  animation  to  the  scene,  skipping  from  bush  to  bush,  or 
skimming  the  surface  of  land  and  water.  They  please  the  eye 
by  their  graceful  shape  and  plumage,  and  they  charm  our  ears 
by  their  ceaseless  warblings.  Even  in  this  sense  we  lie  under  a 
debt  of  gratitude  to  these  graceful  inhabitants  of  the  air.  But  this 
is  far  from  being  the  limit  of  the  benefits  we  derive  from  them. 
The  birds  of  the  poultry- yards  furnish  our  most  delicate  food;  their 
eggs  form  a  considerable  branch  of  trade,  and  are  indispensable  in 
the  kitchen  ;  and  what  would  become  of  our  country  gentleman 
should  our  game  birds  ever  become  extinct? — an  event  by  no 
means  improbable,  seeing  that,  in  the  year  of  grace  1868,  the 
head-dress  of  every  votary  of  fashion  was  decorated  with  the 
wing  of  a  bird — not  confining  the  demand  to  Birds  of  Paradise, 
Ostrich,  Pheasant,  and  other  feathers  of  brilliant  plumage  whose 


206  INTEODUCTOEY  CHAPTEE. 

value  was  a  protection,  but  extending  to  the  harmless  sea- fowl, 
which  were  destroyed  by  thousands  only  for  the  sake  of  their 
feathers. 

Birds  are  useful  to  man  by  their  feeding  on  the  insects,  larvae, 
and  caterpillars  which  infest  cultivated  crops.  Without  their  aid, 
agriculture  would  become  impossible.  In  former  times  it  was  a 
favourite  doctrine  with  the  agriculturist  that  the  Passerina  were 
the  real  destroyers  of  his  crops,  and  a  war  of  extermination  was 
declared  against  them ;  but  the  observations  of  more  enlightened 
persons  have  demonstrated  that  the  chief  food  of  most  of  these 
consists  of  insects,  and  the  havoc  among  them  has  consequently 
been  stayed ;  still  much  ignorance,  and  its  concomitant,  cruelty, 
exist  on  this  point.  Elsewhere,  those  interested  soon  discovered 
that  the  destruction  of  small  birds  led  to  formidable  increase  in 
the  numbers  of  voracious  insects — that  these  lively  and  joyous 
creatures,  which  float  in  the  air  and  twitter  on  the  bough, 
are  sent  us  more  for  good  than  evil,  and  that  if  some  of  them 
make  the  crops  pay  a  tax,  they  repay  it  tenfold  by  keeping 
down  the  excess  of  more  destructive  ravagers. 

While  the  smaller  birds  have  proved  essentially  beneficial 
to  man,  some  of  the  larger  birds  exhibit  similar  tendencies. 
The  Wading  Bird  clears  the  earth  of  serpents  and  other  unclean 
and  venomous  animals.  The  Yultures  an4  Storks  throw  them- 
selves in  flocks  on  corrupt  carrion,  and  divest  the  soil  of  all 
putrefying  objects :  thus,  in  concert  with  insects,  birds  are  the 
scavengers  of  the  earth,  lending  their  aid  to  make  it  a  fit  residence 
for  man  ;  in  fact,  are  constituted  by  nature  guardians  of  the  public 
health. 

In  former  days  Falconry  afforded  a  stately  and  picturesque 
sport  to  the  great,  in  which  lords  and  noble  dames  assisted.  This 
pastime  still  exists  in  some  parts  of  England  and  some  portions  of 
the  East,  especially  in  Persia,  where  the  Falcon  is  trained  to 
chase  the  Gazelle  and  small  ruminants ;  while  in  China  and  Japan 
the  Cormorant  and  Pelican  are  taught  to  fish  the  rivers  for  their 
masters.  From  very  ancient  times,  the  Carrier  Pigeon  was  the 
bearer  of  messages  now  transmitted  along  the  electric  wires  with 
lightning  speed. 

Nor  do  these  benefits  comprise  all  the  claims  of  birds  to  the 


CLASSIFICATION.  207 

gratitude  of  man.  In  tropical  America  the  Agami,  Trophia  crepi- 
tans,  or  Trumpet  Bird  of  Guiana,  is  domesticated,  and  so  docile  in 
its  habits,  that  it  is  employed  to  watch  the  flocks,  which  it  does 
with  the  fidelity  and  intelligence  of  a  Dog.  "  The  Agami,"  says 
M.  Monocour,  "is  not  only  tamed  easily,  but  becomes  attached  to 
its  benefactor  with  all  the  fondness  and  fidelity  of  a  Dog.  When 
bred  in  the  house,  it  loads  the  master  with  caresses,  and  follows 
all  his  motions,  but  is  easily  offended."  It  is  bold  and  obstinate, 
and  will  attack  Cats  and  Dogs,  fighting  a  tough  battle  with  one  of 
the  latter,  however  considerable  his  size.  In  Cayenne  the  denizens 
of  the  poultry -yard  are  confided  to  its  care  ;  it  leads  them  to  their 
pasture,  prevents  them  from  straying  to  a  dangerous  distance,  and 
brings  them  home  in  the  evening,  just  as  a  trained  shepherd's 
Dog  will  do  the  flocks  committed  to  his  care,  and  it  manifests 
its  delight  by  cries  of  joy  when  its  master  vouchsafes  a  caress 
in  return  for  its  faithful  service.  The  Kamichi,  which  belongs, 
like  the  Agami,  to  the  same  order,  possesses  similar  characteristic 
intelligence.  Like  the  former,  it  is  sociable  and  susceptible  of 
education,  and  becomes  a  useful  auxiliary  to  the  inhabitants  of 
South  America. 

After  these  brief  remarks  on  the  organisation  and  habits  of 
birds,  we  proceed  to  describe  the  more  remarkable  species,  arranged 
according  to  a  simple  and  comprehensive  order  of  classification, 
placing  before  the  reader  the  various  orders  of  the  class  AVES, 
in  the  ascending  scale  which  has  been  adopted  in  our  previous 
works. 

AVES — BIRDS. 

Warm-blooded,  vertebrated,  biped  animals.  Pectoral  limbs, 
fore-arms  or  wings  organised  for  flight ;  feathery  integument ; 
red  blood ;  respiration  and  circulation  double ;  lungs  fixed  and 
perforated. 

I.  NATATORES,  OR  PALMIPEDES. 

Swimming  birds,  having  the  toes  united  by  a  membrane ;  legs 
placed  behind  the  equilibrium ;  the  body  covered  with  a  thick 
coat  of  down  beneath  the  feathers.  They  include  the  following 
orders  and  families  : — 


208  INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER. 

I.  Brevipennes,  Ostriches,  Cassowaries,  the  Penguins,  Auks,  Guillemots, 

and  Grebes. 

II.  Longipennes,  including  the  Terns,  Gulls,  Mews,  Petrel,  and  Albatross. 
III.  Totipalmates,    the    Pelicans,     Gannets,    Cormorants,    Frigate    Bird, 

Tropic  Bird. 
IV.  Lamellirostres,  the  Ducks,  Geese,  Swans,  Flamingos. 

II.  GRALLATOKES. 

Wading  birds,  having  the  legs  long  and  naked  from  the  tibia 
downwards. 

I.  Macrodactyli,  Crakes,  Coots,  Rails,  Screamers. 
II.   Cultrirostres,  Boatbills,  Cranes,  Herons,  Ibis,  Storks,  Spoonbills. 
III.  Longirostres,  Avocets,   Snipes,  Ruffs,  Turnstones,  Sandpipers,  Godwit, 

Curlews,  Gambets. 
IY.  Pressirostres,  Oyster  Catchers,  Thicknee  Plovers,  Lapwings,  Bustards, 

Coursers. 

III.  BASQUES. 

Scratching  birds.  Feet  with  strong,  obtuse,  scratching  claws  ; 
mandible  vaulted ;  nostrils  pierced  at  the  base,  covered  by  a 
cartilaginous  scale. 

I.  Gattinacece  (Polygamous). Pea-fowl,  Partridge,  Pheasant,  Quail,  Grouse, 

Pentados,  Turkey,  Curassow. 
II.  Columbacece  (Monogamous),  Pigeons,  Gouravinago. 

IY.  CANTORES. 

Singing  birds.  Legs  short  and  slender,  three  toes  before  and 
one  behind.  In  this  order,  according  to  Professor  Owen,  the 
brain  attains  its  greatest  proportionate  size,  and  the  organs  of  the 
voice  their  greatest  complexity. 

I.  Dentirostres,  Shrikes,  Wrens,  Wagtails,  Thrushes,  Warblers,  Manakins. 
II.  Conirostres,  Birds  of  Paradise,  Crows,  Tits,  Starlings,  Buntings,  Larks, 

Finches,  Grosbeaks. 

III.  Tenuirostres,  Nuthatch,  Creeper,  Sunboard. 
IY.  J?issirostres,  Swallows,  Martins. 

Y.    YOLITORES. 

Birds  moving  solely  by  flight.  Skeleton  light  and  buoyant ; 
head  large ;  keel  deep  (entire  on  the  Humming-bird) ;  wings 


CLASSIFICATION.  209 

powerful,  in  some  long  and  pointed ;  legs  small  and  weak.     The 
order  includes — 

I.  Cypselidce,  Swifts.  VII.   Galbulidce,  Jacmar. 

II.  Trochilidce,  Humming-birds.  VIII.   Coraciadce,  Boilers. 

III.  Caprimulgidce,  Nightjar.  IX.   Capitonidce,  Puff-bird. 

IV.  Trogonidce,  Trogons.  X.  Alcedinidce,  Kingfishers. 
V.  Prionitidce,  Moinots  or  Motmots.     XI.  Bucerotidce,  Hornbills. 

VI.  Meropidce,  Bee-eaters. 

VI.    SCANSORES. 

Climbing  birds,  with  opposing  toes  in  pairs,  two  behind  and  two 
before.  The  order  includes — 

I.  Bamphastidce,  Toucans. 
II.  Bucconidce,  Barbets. 

III.  Cuculidce,  Cuckoos. 

IV.  Picidce,  Woodpeckers. 

V.  Musophagidce,  Plantain- eaters. 
VI.   Coliidce,  Colys. 
VII.  Psittacidce,  Parrots. 

VII.  EAPTORES. 

Rapacious  birds,  with  strong,  curved,  pointed,  and  sharp-edged 
beak  ;  legs  short  and  robust,  three  toes  before  and  one  behind, 
armed  with  strong,  crooked  talons.  The  order  includes — 

I.  Nocturnes,  Owls. 
II.  Diurnes,  Eagles,  Vultures,  Hawks. 


CHAPTER  I, 
THE  NATATORES,  OR  SWIMMING  BIRDS. 

THE  Natatores  are  obviously  devoted,  by  their  organisation,  to 
an  aquatic  life.  Their  constant  haunts  are  found  on  the  great 
rivers  and  lakes,  or  on  the  coast.  They  are  chiefly  characterised 
by  the  form  of  their  feet.  The  toes  are  united  by  marginal  mem- 
branes in  the  Coots  and  Water-rails,  or  in  others  by  the  extension 
of  webs  bstween  and  uniting  the  toes,  of  a  soft  membrane  slightly 
lobed ;  hence  the  name  of  Palmipedes,  or  web-footed,  usually 
applied  to  them.  These  broad  palmate  feet,  acting  at  the  end  of 
a  long  lever,  strike  the  water  with  great  force  when  fully  ex- 
panded, being  favoured  by  their  backward  position.  When  the 
bird  recovers  its  stroke,  the  toes  are  relaxed  in  their  forward 
movement,  preparatory  to  another  effort ;  thus  progression  through 
the  water  is  obtained. 

Some  of  the  swimming  birds  in  their  flight  are  feeble  and  slow  ; 
others  are  incapable  of  even  rising  from  the  water,  being  only 
furnished  with  rudimentary  wings.  Again,  there  are  species 
which  possess  extraordinary  powers  of  traversing  the  air,  their 
well- developed  wings  enabling  them  to  pass  through  space  with 
wonderful  rapidity.  The  Albatross  is  met  with  on  the  high  seas 
at  a  vast  distance  from  the  shore.  Others,  as  the  Petrels,  seem 
to  revel  in  storms  and  tempests,  mingling  their  wild  cry  with 
that  of  the  storm-tossed  waves.  The  sailors,  who  look  anxiously 
to  windward  at  the  dark  horizon,  where  the  clouds  are  sur- 
charged with  torrents  of  rain  ready  to  burst  on  the  ship,  are 
assured  of  the  approaching  tempest  by  the  circling  flight  of  the 
white-winged  Albatross,  as  it  is  seen  through  the  obscure  and 
threatening  mist. 


THE  NATATOKES.  211 

The  whole  order  of  Natatores  swim  and  dive  without  saturation, 
their  plumage  being  anointed  by  an  oily  liquid  furnished  by 
certain  glands  in  their  skin,  which  renders  them  impervious  to 
moisture.  This  immunity  from  the  effect  of  water  is  further 
assisted  by  the  disposition  and  structure  of  their  feathers,  which, 
being  smooth  and  three-cornered,  with  the  barbules  closely  inter- 
laced, cause  the  water  to  glide  off  their  polished  surface ;  while 
the  down  beneath  the  feathers  of  which  we  have  spoken  protects 
their  bodies  from  the  cold,  maintaining  their  natural  heat,  and 
enabling  them  to  resist  the  cold  of  the  most  rigorous  winter. 

The  Natatores  are  numerous  both  in  species  and  individuals, 
having  their  habitat  in  all  countries.  According  to  Prince  Charles 
Bonaparte,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  European  naturalists,  those 
which  frequent  the  sea-shore  alone  constitute  one-fourteenth  part 
of  all  the  birds  on  the  globe,  and  the  number  of  species  he  reckons 
at  nine  thousand  four  hundred.  They  feed  on  vegetables,  insects, 
mollusks,  and  fishes.  They  seek  the  coast  in  the  breeding  season, 
where  they  build  their  nests  on  the  sand,  or  in  nooks  and  crannies 
of  the  rocks,  or  on  the  margin  of  lakes  and  rivers. 

In  the  spring  the  sea-birds  assemble  in  large  flocks,  pair  off,  and 
proceed  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  nests  constructed  generally  with- 
out skill,  but  always  lined  or  carpeted  with  a  fine  down,  which  forms 
a  soft  warm  bed  for  the  embryo  progeny.  Certain  localities  are 
frequented  by  preference,  which  are  occupied  by  innumerable  flocks 
in  the  breeding  season,  all  of  which  seem  to  live  together  in  per- 
fect harmony.  Some  of  the  families  of  the  Natatores  are  valuable 
additions  to  the  poultry-yard.  Ducks  and  Geese  furnish  delicate 
and  nourishing  food  for  man ;  the  Swan  is  gracefully  ornamental 
on  our  lakes  and  ponds.  The  down  of  all  the  aquatic  birds 
is  of  immense  value  to  the  commerce  of  northern  countries. 
The  eggs  are  good  to  eat,  and  in  many  countries  the  inhabitants 
consume  them  in  great  quantities.  Nor  does  their  usefulness 
end  here.  Guano,  so  eagerly  sought  for  by  the  farmer,  is  the 
excrement  of  aquatic  fowls — the  accumulation  of  ages,  until, 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  it  has  formed  whole  islands,  some 
of  them  being  covered  with  this  valuable  agricultural  assistant 
to  the  depth  of  ninety  or  a  hundred  yards.  Nor  is  this  so 
marvellous,  if  it  is  considered  that  twenty-five  or  thirty  thousand 

p2 


212  THE  NATATOEES'. 

sea-birds  sleep  in  these  islets  night  after  night,  and  that  each 
of  them  will  yield  half  a  pound  of  guano  daily.  Our  lands  receive 
valuable  assistance  to  fertility  from  this  unrivalled  material,  which 
owes  its  power  to  the  ammoniacal  salts,  phosphate  of  lime,  and 
fragments  of  feathers  of  which  it  is  composed. 

The  order  of  Natatores,  or  Palmipedes,  consists  of  four  families  : 
— 1.  Brevipennes,  or  Divers;  2.  Longipennes,  or  Skimmers; 
3.  Totipalmates,  or  Pelicanid® ;  4.  Lamellirostres,  including 
Geese,  Ducks,  Swans,  and  Flamingos. 


THE  DIVERS  (Brevipennes) . 

Penguins,  Aptenodytes ;  Auks,  A  lea;  Grebes  and  Divers, 
Colymbus  ;  Guillemots,  Uria. 

The  birds  which  constitute  this  family  of  the  K'atatores  are 
characterised  by  wings  so  thin  and  short  as  to  be  totally  useless 
for  the  purposes  of  aerial  locomotion.  They  are  also  called 
Brachypteres,  from  the  Greek  compound  ppaxys,  short,  and  Trrepa, 
winged.  These  are  all  habitual  divers  and  indefatigable  swim- 
mers, using  their  wings  as  fish  do  their  fins.  To  raise  these 
after  making  the  down- stroke  requires  a  considerably  greater 
effort  than  a  bird  of  flight  makes  in  raising  its  wings  in  the 
air,  for  which  reason  the  second  pectoral  muscle  in  this  and 
other  diving  birds  has  an  unusually  large  development  to  give 
further  strength.  Their  plumage  is  smooth  and  silky,  and  im- 
pervious to  water  from  its  oily  nature.  They  live  chiefly  on  the 
sea,  coming  ashore  in  the  breeding  season. 

The  Divers,  Colymbus ,  are  distinguished  from  other  Brachypteres 
by  their  beak  being  longer  than  the  head,  straight,  robust,  and 
nearly  cylindrical,  slightly  compressed  on  the  sides,  acute,  the 
upper  mandible  longer  than  the  lower  ;  their  toes,  in  place  of  being 
each  furnished  with  marginal  membranes,  have  the  three  united 
by  a  single  membrane  ;  their  feet  being  placed  far  backward  and 
on  the  same  perpendicular  line  with  the  tibia — an  arrangement 
very  unfavourable  for  walking,  compelling  the  birds  to  take  a 
vertical  position,  rendering  their  movements  on  land  both  painful 
and  difficult. 

They  are,  however,  intrepid  swimmers,  and  they  dive  with  such 


GEEAT  NOETHEEN  DIVEE.  213 

alertness  that  it  requires  a  quick  eye  and  hand  to  shoot  them. 
They  are  inhabitants  of  northern  seas  ;  there  they  build  their 
nests  in  some  solitary  islet  or  desert  promontory,  where  they 
lay  two  eggs,  oblong  in  shape,  and  more  or  less  shaded  of  an 
Isabella  white.  Fish,  particularly  the  herring,  form  their  prin- 
cipal food  ;  crustaceans  and  marine  vegetables  are  also  eaten  by 
them.  Their  flesh  is  tough  and  leathery,  and  tastes  disagree- 
able. In  the  winter  they  migrate  to  temperate  countries,  where 
they  frequent  the  rivers  and  lakes,  returning  to  the  northern 
regions  when  the  ice  has  broken  up. 

There  are  three  species  described :  the  Great  Northern  Diver, 
Colymbus  glacialis  ;  the  Arctic  Diver ;  and  the  Imber  Diver.  But 
there  is  considerable  doubt  on  this  subject,  the  young  of  C.  glacialis 
of  the  first  and  second  year  being  so  unlike  the  parent  birds  as  to 
have  been  long  supposed  a  distinct  species. 


THE  GREAT  NORTHERN  DIVER  (Colymbus  glacialis}. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Northern  Diver :  Montagu,  Selby.     Speckled  Diver, 
Ember  Goose  :  Gunner.    Eing-necked  Loon. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Colymbus   glacialis  :   Linn.,    Adult,   Latham,  Jenyns, 
Brien.     Colymbus  Immer  :   Young,  Linn.,  Latham. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Plongeon  Imbrim  :  Temminck. 

The  Great  Northern  Diver  is  among  the  mass  of  those  birds 
which  seek  their  food  on  the  bosom  of  the  great  deep.  It  is  not 
numerous  in  British  waters,  and  can  scarcely  be  called  gregarious, 
although  adults  sometimes,  and  the  young  more  frequently,  form 
small  parties  of  two  to  five.  A  wanderer  on  the  ocean,  it  not  only 
frequents  the  margins  of  the  sea,  fishing  in  the  bays  and  estuaries, 
but  it  is  also  met  with  many  miles  from  the  shore.  Narrow  chan- 
nels, firths,  coves,  sea-locks,  and  sandy  bays  are,  however,  its 
favourite  resorts  ;  there  it  floats,  the  body  deeply  immersed  in  the 
water.  But  though  deep  in  the  water,  it  moves  on  steadily  and 
majestically  ;  it  overtakes  and  shoots  ahead  of  ail  its  more  buoyant 
congeners.  But  let  us  watch  the  actions  of  a  pair  of  these  children 
of  the  ocean,  and  listen  while  Mr.  McGillivray  describes  one  of 
tho^e  picturesque  scenes  in  which  he  delights.  "It  is  now  the 


214  THE  NATATOEES. 

end  of  spring,  when  the  returning  warmth  gives  an  increase  of 
animation  to  the  wandering  tribes  of  the  winged  inhabitants  of 
the  ocean  air ;  but  the  Loon  makes  comparatively  little  use  of  his 
wings,  and  his  great  bulk  and  robust  frame  would  be  ill  adapted 
for  the  hovering  flight  of  the  Gulls  and  Petrels.  There  he  comes, 
followed  by  his  mate,  advancing  with  marvellous  speed.  They 
have  rounded  the  point,  and  now  stop  for  a  moment  to  cast  a 
searching  glance  along  the  shore,  lest  an  enemy  should  be  lurking 
there.  Forward  they  start — the  smooth  water  rippling  gently 
against  their  sides.  Small  effort  they  seem  to  make,  and  yet 
powerful  must  be  the  stroke  of  the  oars  which  impel  masses  so 
large  at  so  rapid  a  rate.  Now  and  again  they  dip  their  bills  into 
the  water ;  then  the  head  and  neck.  One  glides  gently  under  the 


Fig.  80.— Great  Northern  Divers  (Colymbus  glacialis). 

surface,  without  plunge  or  flutter,  and  in  a  few  seconds  it  appears 
with  a  fish  in  his  bill,  which,  with  upstretched  head  and  neck,  it 
swallows.  The  other  having  also  dived,  appears  with  a  fish,  larger, 
and  less  easily  managed.  She  beats  it  about  in  her  bill,  plashing 
the  water,  and  seems  unable  to  adapt  it  to  the  capacity  of  her 
gullet ;  but  at  length,  after  much  striving,  she  masters  it,  and 
continues  her  search.  Backwards  and  forwards,  over  the  clear 
sand  of  the  shallow  bay,  they  glide  in  their  quiet  way,  and  now 
they  have  both  dived  with  their  heads  towards  us.  One  rises  close 
to  the  sea- weed,  and  so  near  to  us,  that  we  might  almost  count  the 
spots  on  his  back.  The  other,  in  emerging,  has  perceived  us,  and 
somehow  communicates  the  discovery  to  her  mate.  Thev  swim 
about  for  a  short  while  with  erected  necks,  then  sink  into  the 


GEEAT  NORTHEEN  DIYEE.  215 

water,  their  heads  disappearing  last ;  and  when  we  see  them  again, 
they  are  three  hundred  yards  distant,  standing  out  to  sea,  with 
half- submerged  bodies."  "  If  shot  at  and  not  wounded,"  continues 
this  most  picturesque  of  writers  on  Natural  History,  "  it  never 
flies  off,  but  dips  into  the  water  and  rises  at  a  great  distance,  and 
unless  shot  dead,  there  is  little  chance  of  procuring  it,  for  its 
tenacity  of  life  is  great,  and  its  speed  far  exceeds  that  of  a  four- 
oared  boat." 

The  great  American  naturalist,  Audubon,  has  left  a  most 
interesting  account  of  this  bird  in  his  "Ornithological Biography." 
After  describing  the  various  Transatlantic  localities  in  which  he 
has  studied  its  economy,  he  describes  its  nest.  "One  that  I  saw," 
he  says,  "  after  the  young  had  left  it,  on  Lake  Cayuga,  was  almost 
afloat,  and  rudely  attached  to  the  rushes,  more  than  forty  yards 
from  the  land,  though  its  base  was  laid  on  the  bottom,  the  water 
being  only  eight  or  nine  inches  deep.  Others  I  examined  in 
Labrador  were  placed  on  dry  land,  several  yards  from  the  water, 
and  raised  to  the  height  of  nearly  a  foot  above  the  decayed  moss 
on  which  they  rested.  The  nest,  however  placed,  is  bulky,  and 
formed  of  withered  grasses  and  herbaceous  plants  found  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  true  nest,  which  is  from  a  foot  to  fifteen 
inches  in  diameter,  is  raised  to  the  height  of  seven  or  eight  inches. 
Of  the  many  nests  I  have  examined,  more  contained  three  than 
two  eggs,  and  I  am  confident  that  the  former  number  most  fre- 
quently occurs." 

Of  this  handsome  bird  Sir  John  Richardson  remarks,  contrary 
to  the  generally- received  notion,  that  it  is  seldom  seen  either  in 
the  Arctic  Sea  or  Hudson's  Bay,  but  that  it  abounds  in  all  the 
inland  lakes.  It  is  rarely  found  on  land,  being  ill  fitted  for 
walking,  but  admirably  adapted  to  aquatic  habits,  swimming  with 
great  swiftness  and  for  considerable  distances  under  water ;  and 
when  it  does  come  up,  seldom  exposing  more  than  its  neck.  It 
flies  heavily,  but  rather  swiftly,  and  in  a  circle  round  those  who 
have  disturbed  it  in  its  haunts ;  its  loud  and  melancholy  cry 
resembling  the  howling  of  the  Wolf,  or  the  distant  scream  of 
a  man  in  distress.  When  the  Loon  calls  frequently,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  portend  a  storm.  In  the  bad  weather  preceding  the 
advent  of  winter  on  the  smaller  northern  American  lakes,  previous 


216  THE  NATATOKES. 

to  migration,  their  wild,  weird  note  is  so  unnatural,  that  both  the 
Indians  and  settlers  ascribe  to  it  supernatural  powers. 

The  Imbrine  Diver,  Ulmbrim  of  Buffon,  is  also  9-  fine  bird 
of  blackish  plumage  shaded  with  white,  the  belly  and  a  ring 
round  the  neck  being  also  white.  The  head  is  of  a  changeable 
black  and  green  colour.-  When  it  has  young,  in  place  of  diving 
under  water,  as  its  ordinary  habit  is  when  threatened,  it  boldly 
attacks  its  enemies  with  its  beak.  Its  skin  serves  the  Greenlanders 
as  clothing.  It  inhabits  the  Arctic  seas  of  both  hemispheres,  is 
abundant  about  the  Hebrides,  in  Norway,  in  Sweden,  and  even 
on  the  coast  of  Scotland.  Its  appearance  on  the  French  coast 
is  very  irregular,  and  only  after  great  storms. 

The  Arctic  Diver,  C.  arcticus,  has  the  beak  and  throat  black ; 
summit  of  the  head  ashy  grey  ;  the  breast  and  the  sides  of  the 
neck  white,  with  black  spots ;  the  back  and  rump  black  ;  the 
coverts  of  the  wings  with  white  spots,  and  all  the  lower  parts 
pure  white.  The  bird,  though  rare  in  England  and  France,  is 
very  common  in  the  North  of  Europe.  It  is  found  on  the  lakes  of 
Siberia,  of  Iceland,  in  Greenland  and  Hudson's  Bay,  and  some- 
times in  the  Orkney  Islands.  The  women  of  Lapland  make 
bonnets  with  its  skin  dressed  without  removing  the  feathers ;  but 
in  Norway  it  is  considered  an  act  of  impiety  to  destroy  it,  as 
the  different  cries  which  it  utters  are  said  to  prognosticate  fine 
weather  or  rain. 

THE  BLACK-THROATED  DIVER  (Colymbus  arcticus). 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Black-throated  Loon,  Black-throated  Diver  :  Mon- 
tagu, Selby. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Colymbus  arcticus :  Linn.,  Latham,  Temminck,  Jenyns, 
Yarrell,  Bonaparte. 

FRENCH   SYNONYMS. — Plongeon   Lumme  :    Temminck.     Plongeon  Arctique : 
Cuvier. 

Smaller  and  more  slender  than  the  Great  Northern  Diver,  this 
species  retains  many  of  its  characteristic  habits.  It  floats  deep  in  the 
water,  and  when  alarmed  swims  at  surprising  speed,  with  out- 
stretched neck  and  rapid  beat  of  the  wings,  and  little  more  than 
its  head  above  the  surface.  It  flies  high  and  in  a  direct  course  with 
;great  rapidity.  Mr.  Selby  describes  an  ineffectual  pursuit  of  a  pair 


BED-TIIBOATED  DIYEB.  217 

on  Loch  Shin,  in  Sutherlandshire,  which  was  long  persevered  in. 
In  this  case  submersion  frequently  took  place,  which  continued  for 
nearly  two  minutes  at  a  time,  and  they  generally  reappeared  at 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant  from  the  spot  at  which  they 
went  down.  In  no  instance  did  he  ever  see  them  attempt  to 
escape  by  taking  wing.  "I  may  observe,"  says  this  acute  ornitho- 
logist, "  that  a  visible  track  from  the  water  to  the  nest  was  made 
by  the  female,  whose  progress  on  land  is  effected  by  shuffling  along 
upon  her  belly,  propelled  from  behind  by  her  legs."  When 
swimming,  they  are  in  the  constant  habit  of  dipping  their  bill  in 
the  water  with  a  graceful  motion  of  the  head  and  neck. 

The  eggs,  of  which  there  are  two,  sometimes  three  in  the  same 
nest,  are  of  a  very  elongated  oval  form,  three  inches  in  length,  two 
inches  in  their  greatest  girth,  and  of  a  brownish  olive  sprinkled 
with  black  or  dark-brown  spots,  and  are  larger  at  one  end  than  at 
the  other. 

THE  RED-THROATED  DIVER  (Colymbus  septentrionalis) . 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Bed-throated  Loon,  Bed-throated  Diver :  Montagu, 
Selby,  Yarrell.     Speckled  Diver :  Montagu. 

LATIN   SYNONYMS. — C.    septentrionalis:     Linn.,    Latham,    Jenyns,   Bona- 
parte, Temminck.     C.  borealis.  Siviatus,  and  stellatus  :  Latham. 

FRENCH  SYNONYMS. — Plongeon  Col  Marin,  ou  d  Gorge  Rouge :  Temminck. 

The  Hed- throated  Diver  is  smaller  than  either  of  the  preceding, 
the  plumage  is  dense  and  firm,  the  wings  of  moderate  length,  the 
tail  rounded  and  firm. 

From  the  beginning  of  October  to  the  middle  of  May  these  birds 
are  constantly  found  on  our  northern  coasts,  and  on  the  rivers  and 
estuaries  with  which  they  abound.  When  on  a  long  journey,  they 
keep  at  a  great  height,  moving  rapidly  in  a  direct  course  with 
outstretched  wings.  On  these  occasions  they  exceed  the  speed 
of  most  of  their  congeners.  With  their  long  outstretched  necks 
and  snow-white  breasts,  from  their  comparatively  short  wings, 
they  present  a  curious  and  novel  sight.  When  swimming  they  are 
extremely  vigilant,  and  permit  nothing  to  approach  them.  On  the 
appearance  of  a  boat  they  glide  as  it  were  out  of  sight  under  the 
water,  without  noise  or  flutter,  and  thence  pursue  their  way  with 
great  rapidity,  using  wings  as  well  as  feet  to  propel  themselves. 


218  THE  NATATORES.    , 

THE  PENGUINS  (Aptenodytes) 

Belong  exclusively  to  cold  countries.  They  rarely  quit  the  vicinity 
of  land,  yet  only  take  to  the  shore  in  the  breeding  season,  or  when 
driven  by  squalls  and  storms  from  their  favourite  element.  On 
shore  they  are  compelled  to  sit  erect.  They  carry  the  head  very 
high  and  the  neck  stretched  out,  while  their  short  winglets  are 
advanced  like  two  diminutive  arms.  When  they  sit  perched  in 
flocks  on  some  lofty  projecting  rock  they  might  be  mistaken  at  a 
distance  for  a  line  of  soldiers. 

At  certain  periods  of  the  year  the  Penguins  assemble  on  the 
beech   as   if   they   preconcertedly   met  for   deliberation.     These 


Fig.  81.— Penguin  (Aptenodytes). 

assemblies  last  for  a  day  or  two,  and  are  conducted  with  an 
obvious  degree  of  solemnity.  When  the  meeting  results  in  a 
decision,  they  proceed  to  work  with  great  activity.  Upon  a 
ledge  of  rock,  sufficiently  level  and  of  the  necessary  size,  they 
trace  a  square  with  one  of  its  sides  parallel  and  overlooking 
the  edge  of  the  water,  which  is  left  open  for  the  egress  of 
the  colony.  Then  with  their  beaks  they  proceed  to  collect 
all  the  stones  in  the  neighbourhood,  which  they  heap  up  outside 
the  lines  marked  out,  to  serve  them  as  a  wall,  to  shelter  them 
from  the  prevailing  winds.  During  the  night  these  openings  are 


PENGUINS  AND  MANCHOTS.  219 

guarded  by  sentinels.  They  afterwards  divide  the  enclosure  into 
smaller  squares,  each  large  enough  to  receive  a  certain  number  of 
nests,  with  a  passage  between  each  square.  No  architect  could 
arrange  the  plan  in  a  more  regular  manner. 

What  is  most  singular  is  that  the  Albatross,  a  bird  essentially 
aerial,  and  adapted  for  flight,  associates  at  this  period  with 
these  half  fish,  half  birds,  the  Penguins ;  so  that  the  nest  of  an 
Albatross  may  be  seen  next  the  nest  of  a  Penguin,  and  the 
whole  colony,  so  differently  constituted,  appear  to  live  on  the  best 
terms  of  intimacy.  Each  keeps  to  its  own  nest,  and  if  by  chance 
there  is  a  complaint,  it  is  that  some  Penguin  (probably  the  king 
Penguin,  for  he  is  generally  the  greatest  thief)  has  robbed  the 
nest  of  his  neighbour,  the  Albatross. 

Other  sea-birds  come  to  partake  of  the  hospitality  of  the  little 
republic.  With  the  permission  of  the  masters  of  the  coterie  they 
build  their  nests  in  the  vacancies  that  occur  in  the  squares. 

The  female  Penguin  lays  but  one  egg,  which  she  only  abandons 
until  hatched  for  a  few  instants,  the  male  taking  her  place  while  she 
seeks  her  food.  The  Penguins  are  so  numerous  in  the  Antarctic 
seas  that  a  hundred  thousand  eggs  have  been  collected  by  the 
crew  of  one  vessel. 

The  Manchots  (Fig.  82)  have  been  described  by  most  of  the 
French  naturalists  as  a  distinct  species,  but  there  is  little  doubt  of 
their  being  only  a  variety  of  the  Aptenodytes.  They  abound  in  the 
southern  seas.  Their  short,  stunted  wings,  which  quite  incapa- 
citate them  from  flying,  are  reduced  to  a  flat  and  very  short  stump, 
totally  destitute  of  feathers,  being  covered  with  a  soft  down,  having 
something  of  the  appearance  of  hair,  which  might  be  taken  for 
scales.  Like  the  Penguin,  the  Manchots  are  excellent  swimmers 
and  incomparable  divers,  and  their  coating  of  down  is  so  dense 
that  it  even  resists  a  bullet ;  it  is  consequently  difficult  to  shoot 
them. 

Everything  about  these  birds  indicates  their  adaptation  to  an 
aquatic  life.  Their  feet  are  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  body — 
an  arrangement  that  renders  them  awkward  and  heavy  when 
ashore ;  where,  in  short,  they  only  come  to  lay  and  hatch  their  eggs. 
They  begin  to  assemble  in  great  numbers  at  the  commencement 
of  October.  Their  nests  are  a  very  simple  construction  ;  for  they 


220 


THE  NATATOEES. 


content  themselves  with  digging  in  the  sand  a  hole  deep  enough 
to  contain  two  eggs — but  more  often  one  than  two. 

In  spite  of  the  limited  number  of  eggs,  the  quantity  of  these 
birds  found  in  the  south  of  Patagonia  is  something  prodigious. 
When  sailors  land  in  these  high  latitudes  they  take  or  kill  as  many 
as  they  choose.  Sir  John  Narborough  says,  speaking  of  those  at 
the  Falkland  Islands,  that  "  when  the  sailors  walked  among  the 
feathered  population  to  provide  themselves  with  eggs,  they  were 
regarded  with  sidelong  glances."  In  many  places  the  shores  were 
covered  with  these  birds,  and  three  hundred  have  been  taken 
within  an  hour  ;  for  generally  they  make  no  effort  to  escape,  but 


Fig.  82.— The  Manchot  (A.  Patachonica). 

stand  quietly  by  while  their  companions  are  being  knocked  down 
with  sticks. 

In  another  islet,  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  Captain  Drake's 
crew  killed  more  than  three  thousand  in  one  day.  These  facts 
are  not  exaggerated.  This  island,  when  visited  by  these  navi- 
gators, was,  so  to  speak,  virgin  ;  and  the  birds  had  succeeded  each 
other  from  generation  to  generation  in  incalculable  numbers, 
hitherto  free  from  molestation. 

The  Penguins  have  no  fear  of  man.  Mr.  Darwin  pleasantly 
relates  his  encounter  with  one  of  these  birds  on  the  Falkland 
Islands.  "  One  day/'  he  says,  "  having  placed  myself  between  a 
Penguin  (A.  demersa)  and  the  water,  I  was  much  amused  by  the 


THE  GEEBES.  221 

action  of  the  bird.  It  was  a  brave  bird,  and,  till  reaching  the 
sea,  it  regularly  fought  and  drove  me  backwards.  Nothing  less 
than  heavy  blows  would  have  stopped  him.  Every  inch  gained 
he  kept  firmly,  standing  close  before  me  firm,  erect,  and  deter- 
mined, all  the  time  rolling  his  head  from  side  to  side  in  a  very 
odd  manner,  as  if  the  powers  of  vision  only  lay  in  the  anterior  and 
basal  part  of  each  eye."  This  bird,  Mr.  Darwin  states,  is  called 
the  Jackass  Penguin,  from  this  habit,  when  on  shore,  of  throwing 
its  head  backwards,  and  of  making  a  loud  strange  noise  very  like 
the  braying  of  an  ass. 

They  defend  themselves  vigorously  with  their  beaks  when  an 
attempt  is  made  to  lay  hands  upon  them ;  and  when  pursued, 
they  will  pretend  to  retreat,  and  return  immediately,  throwing 
themselves  upon  their  assailant.  "  At  other  times  they  will  look 
at  you  askance/'  says  Pernetty,  "  the  head  inclined  first  on  one 
side,  then  on  the  other,  as  if  they  were  mocking  you."  They  hold 
themselves  upright  on  their  feet,  the  body  erect,  in  a  perpendicular 
line  with  the  head.  In  this  attitude  they  might  be  taken  for  a 
party  of  choristers  with  white  surplices  and  black  gowns.  Their 
cry  strikingly  resembles  the  braying  of  an  ass,  Navigators  passing 
these  islands  of  the  southern  seas  might  suppose  that  they  were 
densely  inhabited,  for  the  loud  roaring  voices  of  these  birds  produce 
a  noise  equal  to  that  of  a  crowd  on  a  fete  day.  The  flesh  is  most 
unpalatable,  but  it  is  frequently  the  only  resource  of  ships'  crews 
who  find  themselves  short  of  provisions  in  these  inhospitable 
regions.  As  to  the  eggs  of  most  of  the  Palmipedes,  they  are  said 
to  be  excellent. 


THE  GREBES. 

The  Grebes  (Podiceps)  have  the  head  small,  the  neck  somewhat 
elongated,  the  legs  attached  to  the  abdomen,  the  tail  rudimentary, 
the  tarsi  compressed,  the  anterior  toes  united  at  their  base  by  a 
membrane  slightly  lobed  in  its  contracted  extent.  These  birds 
live  principally  on  the  sea,  but  they  inhabit  fresh  water  by  pre- 
ference, feeding  on  small  fishes,  worms,  mollusks,  insects,  and 
the  products  of  aquatic  vegetation.  While  they  dive  and  swim 
admirably,  they  also  fly  with  vigorous  wing  when  pursued ;  but 


222  THE  NATATOKES. 

they  rarely  ascend  into  the  air  unless  they  are  alarmed,  or  under 
migrating  impulse,  which  disperses  them  among  the  interior 
lakes  in  the  autumn,  and  compels  them  to  select  a  favourable 
breeding-place  in  the  spring. 

The  nest  of  the  Grebe  is  usually  placed  in  a  tuft  of  rushes, 
on  the  edge  of  the  water.  It  is  composed  exteriorly  of  large 
grassy  plants  roughly  interlaced,  and  the  interior  is  lined  with 
soft  broken  grasses  delicately  arranged.  The  eggs  vary  from  three 
to  seven.  On  shore  they  cannot  walk  at  all,  but  creep,  so  to 
speak ;  for  they  must  hold  themselves  nearly  upright,  supported 
on  the  croup,  the  toes  and  the  tarsi  being  extended  laterally.  But 
ungraceful  as  they  are  on  shore,  so  much  greater  is  their  elegance 
on  the  water.  They  are  covered  with  a  close  warm  down — so  close 
and  so  lustrous,  that  muffs  of  a  silvery  white  are  made  of  the  down- 
covered  skins  of  their  breast,  which  are  impervious  to  water. 

M.  Noury,  Director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Elbo3uf, 
who  has  carefully  studied  the  habits  of  the  Grebes,  relates  of  the 
Castanean  Grebe,  P.  cornutus,  that  its  nest  is  a  perfect  raft,  which 
floats  upon  the  surface  of  our  ponds  and  lakes.  It  is  a  mass  of 
thick  stems  of  aquatic  herbs  closely  woven  together  ;  and  as  these 
materials  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  air  in  their  numerous 
cells,  and  from  disengaging  various  gases  besides  in  decomposing, 
these  aeriform  supporters  render  the  nest  lighter  than  the  water. 
In  this  improvised  ship,  and  upon  this  humid  bed,  the  female  Grebe 
silently  sits  upon  and  hatches  her  progeny.  But  if  anything 
unforeseen  disturbs  her  security,  this  wild  bird  plunges  one  foot 
into  the  water,  which  she  employs  as  an  oar  to  transport  her 
dwelling  from  the  threatened  danger. 

Grebes  are  inhabitants  of  the  Old  and  "New  Continents. 
Among  the  European  species  may  be  noticed  the  Crested  Grebe 
(Podiceps  cristatus),  Fig.  83,  about  the  size  of  a  Duck,  ornamented 
with  a  double  black  crest ;  the  Horned  Grebe  (P.  cornutus),  pro- 
vided with  two  long  tufts  of  feathers,  in  form  somewhat  resembling 
a  horn ;  the  Eared  Grebe  (P.  auritus),  distinguished  by  its  beak, 
the  base  of  which  is  depressed,  while  the  point  is  raised  upwards. 
Among  the  American  species  may  be  mentioned  P.  Carolinensis 
and  P.  rubricollis,  killed  at  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  along  with 
P.  cristatus  and  P.  cornutus.  P.  Chilensis  and  P.  Americanus 


THE  CRESTED  GBEBE.  223 

are  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America,  of  St.  Thomas,  St. 
Domingo,  and  the  Philippines. 

THE  CRESTED  GREBE. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Greater  Crested  Grebe  :   Jenyns.     Crested  Grebe  : 
Montagu,  Selby. 

LATIN    SYNONYMS. —  Colymlus   cri status  :    Linn.,    Yarrell.      C.  uriitatur : 
Young,  Linn.     Podiceps  cristatus :  Latham,  Jenyns,  Bonaparte,  Selby. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Grebe  liuppe  :  Temminck. 

The  Crested  Grebe  is  found  along  our  coasts,  and  in  their  estu- 
aries, in  limited  numbers  ;  but  in  the  splendid  lakes  of  the  North 
American  fur-countries,  according  to  Dr.  Richardson,  this  species 
is  very  abundant.  Mr.  Audubon  says  that  it  returns  to  the  United 


.  83.—  The  Crested  Grebe  (Podiceps  ciistatus). 


States  from  its  northern  wanderings  about  the  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember, and  proceeds  south  as  far  as  Mexico,  a  few  stragglers  only 
remaining  on  the  lower  part  of  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  and  the 
neighbouring  lakes.  "  They  pass  swiftly  through  the  air/'  says 
this  enthusiastic  naturalist,  "  at  the  height  of  about  a  hundred 
yards,  in  flocks  of  from  seven  and  eight  to  fifty  or  more,  proceeding 
in  a  loose  body,  and  propelling  themselves  by  continual  flappings, 
their  necks  and  feet  stretched  out  to  their  full  extent.  When 
about  to  alight  on  the  water,  they  glide  swiftly  downward,  with 
their  wings  half  closed,  producing  a  sound  not  unlike  that  of  a 
Hawk  swooping  upon  its  prey.  At  this  moment  their  velocity 


224 


THE  NATATORES. 


is  so  great  that,  on  alighting,  they  glide  forward  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  for  twenty  or  thirty  yards,  leavin  g  a  deep  furrow  in  their 
wake.  They  are  exceedingly  quick- sigh  ted,  and  frequently  elude, 
by  diving,  the  shot  which  is  aimed  at  them." 

The  Guillemots  (Uria),  Fig.  84,  have  the  beak  long,  straight,  con- 
vex above,  somewhat  angular  below,  a  little  curved  and  hollowed 
at  the  extremity  of  each  mandible  ;  the  legs  are  short,  compressed, 
and  placed  well  behind  the  body ;  the  three  anterior  toes  are  united 
by  the  same  membrane  ;  the  claws  recurved  and  pointed  ;  no  hind 
toe  ;  the  wings  are  straight,  and  the  tail  short.  These  birds, 
when  placed  on  the  ground,  raise  themselves  with  great  diffi- 
culty, owing  to  the  conformation  of  their  legs.  They  only  come 
ashore  when  driven  there  for  shelter  by  the  storm,  or  for  breed- 
ing. For  the  latter  purpose 
they  choose  some  precipitous 
coast  where  the  rocks  project 
in  ledges,  from  which  they  can 
throw  themselves  into  the  sea 
if  they  are  disturbed.  Boldly- 
scarped  cliffs,  which  rise  per- 
pendicularly from  the  waves, 
are  consequently  their  favourite 
breeding-places.  There  it  is 
necessary  to  seek  them.  Un- 
fortunately, the  demand  for  the 
wings  and  down  of  the  Guille- 
mots has  reached  a  point  which 
is  not  unlikely  to  lead  to  their 
extermination.  One  London 
dealer,  we  are  told,  has  given 
*£.-/  an  order  at  Ailsa  Craig,  on  the 
rig.  84.-Gumemots(tfria  Troiie).  Clyde,  for  a  thousand  sea-birds 

weekly  ;  and  the  tacksman  of  the  rock  is  so  intent  on  supplying 
the  demand,  that  he  spreads  his  nets  while  the  birds  are  sitting 
on  the  newly-hatched  young,  which  are  thus  left  in  thousands  to 
perish  from  being  deprived  of  a  mother's  fostering  care. 

Among  the  Guillemots,  the  female  lays  only  one  large  egg. 
They  feed  on  fishes,  insects,   and  Crustacea.      They   principally 


UTILITY  OF  BIRDS.  225 

inhabit  northern  regions,  visiting  our  shores  and  other  temperate 
climates  when  the  ice  has  invaded  their  summer  home.  In  their 
migratory  journeys  they  must  trust  to  their  wings — which,  how- 
ever, as  already  observed,  are  very  short.  They  are  consequently 
not  possessed  of  long  powers  of  flight,  and  skim  the  surface  of  the 
water,  rarely  rising  much  above  the  surface.  Their  progress, 
however,  is  sharp  and  rapid,  but  of  short  duration.  The  Guille- 
mots during  winter  are  frequently  seen  in  immense  numbers  on 
.Rock-all  Bank  and  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  So  little  are 
they  alarmed  at  the  approach  of  a  vessel,  that  should  they  be 
directly  in  her  track,  they  will  only  dive  to  save  themselves. 
These  banks  are  several  hundred  miles  from  land. 

The  whole  race  of  aquatic  birds  of  which  we  have  spoken,  whether 
Divers,  Penguins,  Grebes,  or  Guillemots,  are,  in  these  northern 
regions,  a  valuable  resource,  where  vegetation  almost  entirely 
ceases.  The  poor  people  whose  lot  compels  them  to  live  there 
obtain  in  their  feathers,  skin,  oil,  and  eggs,  clothing,  food,  and 
light  during  their  long  and  gloomy  winter.  But  to  obtain 
what  they  truly  consider  a  blessing  from  heaven,  they  have  to 
surmount  innumerable  difficulties,  the  birds  often  building  their 
nests  in  islets  almost  unapproachable,  or  on  rocks  rising  perpen- 
dicularly out  of  the  water.  Slung  upon  seats  hung  from  the 
summits  of  these  crags,  the  courageous  islanders  suspend  them- 
selves, in  the  breeding  season,  to  gather  and  make,  so  to  speak, 
a  harvest  of  the  sea-fowls'  eggs.  Some  of  these  men  walk  along 
the  rocky  coast,  furnished  with  a  conical  net  attached  to  the 
end  of  a  pole,  which  enables  them  to  secure  the  birds  flying 
around  them,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  boys  catch  butterflies 
in  the  meadows. 

But  chasing  these  graceful  swimmers  at  the  foot  of  their  rocky 
retreat  is  mere  trifling ;  the  dramatic  and  dangerous  incidents  occur 
at  the  summit  of  the  steep,  giant  cliffs.  The  intrepid  inhabitants 
of  the  Feroe  Islands,  which  are  situated  to  the  north  of  Scotland, 
between  Norway  and  Iceland,  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  proceed  as 
follows  in  the  search  after  eggs.  The  fowler  begins  operations 
by  swarming,  as  schoolboys  call  it,  up  a  pole,  which  carries 
him  to  the  first  projecting  ledge  of  the  rocks.  This  point  attained, 
he  throws  a  knotted  rope  to  his  companions,  who  soon  join  him  on 

Q 


i'lg.  85.— Catching  Birds  and  gathering  Eggs  in  the  Feroe  Islands. 


GATHERING  SEA-BIEDS'  EGGS.  227 

the  aerial  cliffs.  The  same  manoeuvre  is  performed,  stage  by  stage, 
until  they  reach  the  summit.  But  this  is  nothing  ;  he  has  now  to 
visit  the  recesses  in  which  the  nests  are  to  be  found. 

Upon  the  edge  of  the  rock  a  beam  is  run  out  horizontally ;  to 
this  beam  a  two-inch  rope,  which  is  not  less  than  nine  hundred  feet 
in  length,  is  attached.  To  the  end  of  this  immense  line  a  plank 
is  tied,  upon  which  the  fowler  seats  himself.  This  man  holds 
in  his  hand  a  light  cord  for  the  purpose  of  signalling  to  his  com- 
panions above.  The  fowler,  thus  seated,  descends  from  cliff  to  cliff, 
and  from  rock  to  rock  ;  he  visits  every  nook  and  cranny  in  search  of 
plunder,  making  an  ample  harvest  of  eggs  and  birds,  either  taking 
them  by  hand,  or  striking  them  with  the  end  of  his  line.  The 
product  of  his  perilous  expedition  he  places  in  a  sort  of  haversack, 
which  he  carries  slung  from  the  shoulder.  When  he  wishes  to 
change  his  place,  he  gives  a  preconcerted  signal  with  his  cord, 
imparting  an  oscillating  motion  to  it  in  the  direction  of  that  part  of 
the  rock  he  wishes  to  visit.  When  the  harvest  is  deemed  sufficient 
— when  the  day's  sport  is  concluded — his  companions  are  notified, 
and  the  fowler  is  hoisted  to  the  summit  of  the  cliff. 

How  incredible  is  the  address,  and  how  great  the  courage, 
required  to  induce  a  man  to  let  himself  be  suspended  by  a  slender 
cord  over  a  precipice  some  hundreds  of  feet  in  height,  and  how 
hazardous,  how  frightful  the  peril !  The  cord  might  be  cut  by 
chafing  against  the  sharp  rock.  What  risks  he  runs  on  changing 
his  place  !  It  has  sometimes  happened  to  those  above  to  hear  one 
loud  heart-rending  shriek — the  cry  of  despair.  The  men  who  hold 
the  rope  lean  forward — they  see  nothing — they  hear  only  the 
great  voice  of  the  sea,  which  drowns  all  other  sounds  as  it  breaks 
against  the  island.  They  hasten  to  draw  up  the  cord — alas!  its 
reduced  weight  too  plainly  tells  what  has  happened  !  The  fowler 
has  been  seized  with  vertigo ;  or,  probably,  he  has  overreached  him- 
self and  lost  his  equilibrium  on  the  slippery  stones,  and  the  wave 
which  roars  at  the  base  of  this  wall  of  rock  has  closed  over  him. 

It  is  such  accidents  as  these  which  induce  the  inhabitant  of 
the  Feroe  Islands,  when  he  leaves  his  house  on  such  an  expedi- 
tion, to  bid  farewell  to  his  family.  Fatal  catastrophes,  however, 
are  not  very  frequent.  Men  who  live  in  those  climates  which 
nature  seems  to  have,  as  it  were,  disinherited,  become  accustomed 

Q2 


228  THE  NATATORES. 

to  struggle  with  the  elements,  and  almost  always  to  triumph 
over  the  dangers  which  surround  them.  They  go  to  demand  from 
the  abyss  food  for  their  wives  and  children,  and  the  idea  animates 
and  sustains  their  courage. 

THE  COMMON  GUILLEMOT  (Uria  Troile). 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Lesser  Guillemot :  Montagu.  Foolish  Guillemot : 
Montagu,  Selby,  Willock,  Linn.  Marrot,  Scout,  Sea-Hen,  Scuttock  : 
Local. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Uria  Troile :  McGillivray,  Latham,  Jenyns,  Bona- 
parte. Colymbus  Troile :  Latham. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Guillemot  d  capuchon. 

Individuals  of  this  species  are  to  he  found  dispersed  over  all  our 
seas,  in  small  parties  or  singly,  during  the  interval  between  the 
breeding  seasons.  In  estuaries,  bays,  and  narrows,  where  herrings 
or  other  fry  are  abundant,  they  congregate  in  vast  numbers,  along 
with  Auks,  Red-throated  Divers,  and  Gulls  of  various  species. 
About  the  end  of  April  great  quantities  may  be  seen  flying  in 
strings  along  the  coast  towards  their  favourite  haunts,  which  are 
the  precipitous  cliffs  of  Flarnborough  Head,  the  Earn  Islands, 
St.  Abb's  Head,  and  other  well-known  spots  on  the  English  and 
Scottish  sea-board.  No  preparation  is  made  for  the  reception  of  the 
eggs,  which  are  deposited  in  hollows  of  the  rocks  and  ledges  of 
the  cliffs,  each  female  laying  .a  single  one,  although  a  great 
number  are  often  seen  so  closely  packed  together  as  to  be  possibly 
covered  by  one  bird. 

Where  the  cliffs  are  lofty  and  other  birds  breed  with  them,  the 
Guillemot  occupies  a  zone  above  the  Kittiwake  and  below  the 
Razor-bill.  "  It  is  interesting,"  writes  McGillivray,  with  the 
enthusiasm  of  one  who  has  tried  it,  "  to  visit  one  of  the  great 
breeding-places,  to  row  along  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  in  a  boat,  or  to 
stand  on  a  near  promontory,  and  see  the  multitudes  perched  on 
the  rocks,  or  flying  out  to  sea  or  returning ;  or  to  look  out  from 
the  summit  upon  the  groups  in  sight ;  or  startle  from  their  stations 
a  whole  flock  by  letting  down  a  large  stone  ;  or  to  descend  by 
some  crevice,  clinging  with  fingers  and  unshod  feet  to  the  little 
narrow  ledges,  and  creep  in  among  the  eggs  ;  or  to  be  let  down, 
dangling  on  a  rope,  half  trembling  between  fear  and  excitement." 


CHAPTER  II. 
DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

WILLOUGHBY  distributes  the  Palmipedes  into  such  as  have  the 
back  toe,  and  those  in  which  it  is  absent ;  the  former,  again,  into 
such  as  have  the  four  toes  webbed  together,  and  such  as  have  the 
back  toe  separated  from  the  others.  These  latter  he  again  subdi- 
vides into  narrow-billed  and  broad-billed ;  the  former  having 
their  bills  either  hooked  at  the  end  or  straight  and  sharp- pointed. 
The  hook-billed  have  them  either  even  or  toothed  on  the  sides. 
Those  which  have  them  straight  or  sharp-pointed  are  either  short- 
winged  and  divers — such  as  Doukers  and  Loons — or  long- winged, 
such  as  Gulls.  The  broad-billed  are  divided  into  Ducks  and 
Geese.  The  Ducks  are  either  Sea  or  Pond  Ducks.  "  The  Ducks," 
he  adds,  "  have  shorter  necks  and  larger  feet,  in  proportion  to 
their  bodies,  than  Geese.  Howbeit,  the  biggest  in  this  kind  do 
equal,  if  not  exceed,  the  least  in  that.  They  have  shorter  legs 
than  Geese,  and  situated  more  backward,  so  that  they  go  waddling  ; 
a  broader  and  flatter  back,  and  so  a  more  compressed  body  ;  and, 
lastly,  a  broader  and  flatter  bill.  Their  tongue  is  pectinated,  or 
toothed,  on  each  side,  which  is  common  with  them  and  the 
Geese." 

"  The  Ducks  are  of  two  sorts,  either  wild  or  tame.  The  wild, 
again,  are  of  two  sorts  : — 1,  Sea  Ducks,  which  feed  mostwhat  in 
salt  waters,  dive  much  in  feeding,  have  a  broader  bill  (especially 
the  upper  one),  and  bending  forward  to  work  on  the  stem  ;  a  large 
hind  toe,  and  then,  likely  for  a  rudder,  a  long  train,  not  sharp- 
pointed.  2,  Pond  Ducks,  which  haunt  plashes,  have  a  straight 
and  narrower  bill,  a  very  little  hind  toe,  a  sharp-pointed  train,  a 


230  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

white  belly,  speckled  feathers,  black,  with  glittering  green  on  the 
middle  wing,  with  a  white  transverse  ring  on  either  side." 

According  to  Mr.  Yarrell,  the  first  division  of  Ducks  com- 
prises the  Wild  Duck,  Shieldrake,  Muscovy  Duck,  Gadwall,  Sho- 
veller, Pintail,  Widgeon,  Bimaculated  Duck,  Garganey,  and  Teals, 
all  of  which  exhibit  length  of  neck,  wings  reaching  to  the  end 
of  the  tail,  tarsi  somewhat  round,  hind  toe  free  or  without  pendent 
lobe.  They  generally  frequent  fresh  water,  but  pass  much  of  their 
time  on  land,  feeding  on  aquatic  plants,  insects,  worms,  and  some- 
times fish.  The  second  division  includes  the  Red  Crested  Duck, 
Poachard,  Ferruginous  Duck,  Scaup,  Tufted  Duck,  Harlequin 
Duck,  Long- tailed  Duck,  and  Golden  Eye ;  while  between  the  two 
divisions  he  places,  as  possessing  some  of  the  characters  of  each, 
the  Eider  Duck,  King  Duck,  Velvet  Duck,  and  Scoter. 

McGillivray  accepts  this  arrangement,  with  some  slight  varia- 
tions, remarking  that  the  differences  as  to  habits,  as  well  as  struc- 
ture, are  quite  obvious  ;  and  he  gives  us  a  graphic  description  of 
the  three  types.  "  High  in  air,"  he  says,  "  advancing  on  gently- 
arched  and  outspread  wings,  that  winnow  a  passage  for  them  over 
the  far-spreading  sea,  is  seen  advancing  from  the  north  a  flock 
of  large  birds,  that  are  observed,  as  they  draw  nearer,  to  be  arranged 
in  lines  ever  undulating  and  changing  figure  ;  while  their  clear 
cries  seem  to  express  their  joy  at  having  escaped  the  dangers  of 
their  long  passage  over  the  waste  of  waters.  "Now  they  descend, 
mingle  their  ranks,  wheel  in  dislocated  bands,  unite,  sweep  along, 
and,  clamorous  in  their  joy,  at  length  alight  on  the  open  pasture. 
Having  rested  awhile  and  plumed  themselves,  they  begin  to  move 
about  in  search  of  food,  walking  sedately  and  with  decurrent  necks, 
stretching  their  strong  bills  to  the  ground,  from  which  they  wrench 
the  roots  of  the  grasses,  and  pluck  the  herbage.  Prudent,  how- 
ever, as  they  well  need  be  in  an  unexplored  tract,  and  careful  of 
their  safety,  they  neither  scatter  about  at  random  nor  leave  them- 
selves subject  to  surprise.  Should  a  suspicious  object  present 
itself,  one  of  them  presently  erects  himself  and  emits  a  warning 
cry,  on  hearing  which  they  all  rise  together,  raise  their  necks  to 
their  full  stretch,  and  carefully  inspect  the  ground.  Should  the 
danger  be  imminent,  they  run  a  few  paces  forward,  spread  out 
their  large  wings,  ascend  into  the  air,  and  betake  themselves  to 


DUCKS.  231 

some  distant  place."  These  are  of  the  first  division,  or  Cribatores, 
as  Mr.  McGillivray  calls  them — more  useful  to  man  than  the  other 
aquatic  birds,  many  of  them  not  only  affording  him  savoury  food, 
but  feathers,  quills,  and  down ;  while  some  have  become  domesti- 
cated, and  rival  the  Gallinaceous  Fowls  in  utility :  these  are  the 
Ducks  and  Geese  of  the  poultry- yards  and  commons. 

These  web-footed  birds,  the  Lamellirostra  of  Cuvier,  are  distin- 
guished from  all  others  by  their  laminated  bills,  which  are  thick, 
have  a  covering  of  soft  skin,  also  small  teeth  placed  along  the  edge. 
The  tongue  is  fleshy,  broad,  and  dentated  on  the  edge.  They  are 
aquatic,  and  principally  inhabit  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers. 
Their  wings  being  short,  and  living  chiefly  on  the  water,  they 
are  badly  qualified  for  a  sustained  flight.  Their  food  is  mostly 
vegetable. 

Numerous  flocks  of  Ducks,  of  various  species,  frequent  the  sea- 
shores and  the  rivers  of  all  parts  of  the  world.  No  family  of  birds 
seems  more  profusely  distributed  over  the  world  of  waters,  and 
some  of  them  are  remarkable  for  the  brilliant  colouring  of  their 
plumage.  On  land,  the  waddling  gait  of  Ducks  is  anything  but 
graceful,  but  in  the  water  their  appearance  is  alert  and  elegant. 
Look  at  them  as  they  glide  lightly  over  the  surface  of  the 
stream,  or  mark  them  as  they  plunge  into  its  bosom  with  a  splash, 
either  to  bathe  themselves  or  seek  their  food !  All  their  move- 
ments here  are  executed  with  graceful  ease,  and  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  they  are  in  their  natural  element.  They  love  to  paddle  in 
the  mud,  where  they  often  find  a  sufficient  supply  of  food  to  satisfy 
their  voracity.  But  no  description  of  animal  matter  comes  amiss  to 
them,  whether  water- insects,  worms,  slugs,  snails,  small  frogs,  bread, 
fresh  or  tainted  meat,  fish,  living  or  dead.  They  are  such  gluttons, 
that  we  have  seen  two  of  them  fighting  and  disputing  for  more  than 
an  hour  over  the  skin  of  an  eel,  or  some  other  garbage,  which  one 
of  them  had  partly  swallowed,  whilst  his  antagonist  was  dragging 
at  the  other  end.  To  this  division  of  the  Anatidse  belongs  the 
Mallard,  or  Wild  Duck,  which  may  be  considered  typical  of  the 
others,  and  which  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  ancestor  of  the 
Domestic  Duck. 


232 


DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 


THE  COMMON  DUCK,  OR  MALLARD. 

ENGLISH    SYNONYMS. — Mallard :    McGillivray,   Jenyns.       Common  Wild 

Duck:  Montagu,  Selby. 
LATIN   SYNONYM. — Anas   boschas :    Linn.,    Latham,   Jenyns,    Bonaparte, 

Temminck. 
FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Canard  sauvage :  Temminck. 

The  plumage  of  the  Wild  Duck  is  dense  and  elastic.  The  head, 
throat,  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  of  the  male  are  adorned  with 
hues  of  a  bright  emerald  green,  shot  with  violet ;  its  breast  is  of  a 
purplish  brown ;  its  back  is  ashy  brown,  sprinkled  with  greyish- 
white  zigzag  bars  ;  the  four  feathers  in  the  middle  of  the  tail, 
curling  up  at  the  end  in  a  semicircle,  are  of  a  blackish  hue  with 
a  green  reflection  ;  its  length  is  about  twenty-four  inches ;  length 
of  wing,  thirty-five  inches.  The  female,  which  is  always  smaller 
than  her  mate,  does  not  possess  the  bright  colours  which  adorn 
the  Drake.  Her  plumage  is  brown  and  russet  grey.  Individuals 


Fig.  86.— Wild  Ducks  (Anas  boscluis). 

sometimes,  though  seldom,  vary.  Sir  William  Jardine  states 
that  he  has  seen  Drakes  having  the  upper  parts  of  a  bluish  grey, 
decreasing  in  depth  of  colouring  down  the  breast ;  and  Mr. 
Yarrell  mentions  two  instances  in  which  females  of  this  species 
have  assumed,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  appearance  and  plumage 
of  the  Mallard,  even  to  the  curling  feathers  of  the  tail.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  male  plumage,  according  to  Mr.  Waterton,  under- 
goes a  singular  alteration.  About  the  end  of  May  the  breast  and 


WILD  DUCKS.  233 

back  of  the  Drake  begin  to  change  colour;  in  a  few  days  the 
curled  feathers  of  the  tail  drop  out,  and  grey  feathers  begin  to 
appear  in  the  lovely  green  plumage  round  the  eyes ;  and,  by  the 
28rd  of  June,  scarcely  one  green  feather  remains.  By  the  6th  of 
July  all  the  green  feathers  have  disappeared,  and  the  male  has 
assumed  the  female  garb,  but  darker  in  colour.  In  August  this  new 
plumage  begins  to  drop  off,  and  by  the  middle  of  October  the  Drake 
again  reappears  in  all  the  rich  magnificence  of  its  former  dress. 

The  Wild  Duck  (Fig.  86)  forms  the  original  stock  from  which 
our  Domestic  Ducks  have  sprung.  Their  favourite  resorts  are  to  be 
found  in  those  hyperborean  regions  whose  rigorous  climate  renders 
it  uninhabitable  by  man.  The  rivers  of  Lapland,  Greenland, 
and  Siberia  are  sometimes  literally  covered  with  them ;  and,  in 
the  month  of  May,  their  nests  are  there  found  in  quantities 
which  the  imagination  can  scarcely  picture.  At  the  first  ap- 
proach of  frost  their  earliest  harbingers  begin  to  appear  among 
us,  and  about  the  middle  of  October  these  travelling  bands  arrive 
in  increasing  numbers. 

Wild  Ducks  have  a  powerful,  sustained,  and  rapid  flight.  With 
one  stroke  of  the  wing  they  raise  themselves  either  from  the  land 
or  water,  and  mount  perpendicularly  above  the  summits  of  the 
loftiest  trees,  when  they  take  a  more  horizontal  course,  maintaining 
themselves  at  a  great  height,  and  making  long  journeys  without 
rest.  Triangular  columns  of  them  may  sometimes  be  seen 
directing  their  unerring  course  towards  their  destination,  the 
rustling  of  their  wings  being  heard  at  considerable  distances. 
The  leading  bird,  which  directs  the  course  of  the  band,  and  which 
is  thus  exposed  to  the  first  resistance  of  the  wind,  from  being 
foremost  to  cleave  the  air,  soon  becomes  fatigued,  when  it  falls 
back  into  the  second  rank,  its  place  in  the  van  being  immediately 
taken  by  another  (Fig.  87). 

Wild  Ducks  are  extremely  suspicious  in  their  nature.  When 
they  want  to  settle  down  on  any  spot,  or  to  go  from  one  pool  to 
another,  they  sweep  round  in  concentric  curves,  descending  and 
ascending  again  and  again,  until  they  have  made  a  complete  sur- 
vey of  their  intended  halting-place. 

The  margins  of  fresh- water  lakes,  pools,  and  marshes  are  the 
principal  localities  frequented  by  the  Wild  Duck,  so  long  as  the 


INCUBATION  OF  WILD  DUCKS.  235 

frosts  of  winter  do  not  prevent  their  obtaining  the  water-insects 
and  aquatic  weeds  on  which  they  feed.  But  when  the  frost  has 
congealed  the  stagnant  waters,  they  take  themselves  off  into  more 
temperate  climates,  invariably  following  the  course  of  the  rivers 
and  running  streams.  When  they  return  northward  after  the  great 
thaw — that  is,  about  the  end  of  February — they  keep  in  pairs,  and 
disperse  themselves  in  search  of  breeding-places  among  the  rushes, 
reeds,  and  sedge-grasses,  constructing  a  bulky  nest  of  weeds,  which 
is  simply  placed  on  the  ground,  and  generally  near  to  water. 

Much  elegance  is  not  to  be  looked  for  in  the  nest  of  the  Wild 
Duck.  A  favourite  situation  is  a  thickly- growing  tuft  of  sedge, 
and  they  content  themselves  with  plucking  off  a  few  of  the  blades, 
the  ends  of  which  they  bend  down  so  as  to  form  a  foundation,  the 
surface  being  covered  with  a  soft  layer  of  down.  Their  nests 
are  occasionally  found  at  some  distance  from  the  water,  amidst 
heath  or  broom,  or  even  in  the  fork  of  a  tree,  the  female  having 
been  known  to  take  possession  of  a  Magpie's  or  Crow's  nest  which 
had  been  abandoned. 

The  Duck  lays  from  five  to  ten  eggs,  and  sometimes  more  ; 
their  colour  varies,  but  is  generally  a  dull  greenish  white.  The 
female  sits  alone,  and  only  leaves  the  nest  to  seek  her  food.  When 
leaving  her  nest,  she  covers  it  up  carefully  with  any  rubbish  at 
hand ;  on  her  return,  the  cunning  creature  alights  a  consider- 
able distance  from  it,  and  glides  through  the  grass,  looking  in 
every  direction  to  see  that  she  is  not  watched ;  if  discovered,  she 
will  even  feign  lameness  to  induce  pursuit,  so  that  she  may  draw 
off  intruders. 

Incubation  lasts  about  a  month.  The  young  ones  are  then 
hatched,  all  generally  bursting  the  egg  on  the  same  day.  They  are 
covered  with  a  close  yellow  down,  and  are  quite  alert  when  they  leave 
the  shell ;  and  their  mother  soon  leads  them  down  to  the  water,  en- 
couraging them  by  her  example  to  enter  it.  They  do  not  return  to 
the  nest.  At  night  their  mother  covers  them  under  her  wings,  and 
at  first  feeds  them  with  the  small  flies  that  come  within  her  reach. 

The  ducklings,  although  they  soon  learn  to  swim,  are  unable  to 
fly  till  after  the  expiration  of  three  months ;  after  that  lapse  of 
time  wing- feathers  are  developed  sufficiently  to  enable  them  to 
take  flight.  But  they  are  always  alert  and  active  on  the  water, 


236  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

diving  and  remaining  under  it  for  many  minutes  with,  nothing 
but  the  bill  above  the  surface.  When  danger  approaches,  the 
mother  utters  a  peculiar  cry,  and  the  young  ones  immediately 
conceal  themselves.  In  a  ditch  full  of  water,  Mr.  McGillivray 
once  came  upon  a  whole  brood  of  half- grown  ducklings  which 
disappeared  in  a  moment ;  and  although  he  searched  everywhere 
for  them,  he  did  not  succeed  in  finding  a  single  one.  When  the 
Duck  perceives  the  great  Black-backed  Gull,  the  ruthless  enemy 
of  her  race,  she  beats  the  water  with  her  wings  as  if  to  attract 
the  attention,  of  the  aggressor.  On  his  approach  she  darts  at 
him  with  so  much  vigour  that  she  compels  him  to  retire,  shame- 
fully beaten. 

Audubon  relates  a  remarkable  instance  of  maternal  affection  in 
this  bird.  The  American  naturalist  had  found  in  the  woods  a 
female  of  this  species  at  the  head  of  her  young  brood.  As  he 
approached,  he  noticed  that  her  feathers  became  erect,  and  that 
she  hissed  with  a  threatening  gesture,  after  the  manner  of  Geese. 
In  the  meantime,  the  ducklings  made  off  in  all  directions.  His 
Dog,  which  was  perfectly  trained,  brought  the  little  creatures  to 
him,  one  by  one,  without  doing  them  the  least  injury.  But  in  all 
his  proceedings  he  was  watched  by  the  mother,  who  kept  passing 
and  repassing  in  front  of  him,  as  if  to  distract  his  attention. 
When  the  ducklings  were  all  safe  in  the  game-bag,  in  which  they 
struggled  and  cried  out,  the  mother  came  with  a  sad  and  troubled 
air,  and  placed  herself  close  to  the  sportsman,  as  if  unable  to  sup- 
press her  despair.  Audubon,  seeing  her  grovelling  almost  under 
his  feet,  was  filled  with  pity,  and  restored  her  little  family  before 
leaving  the  spot.  "  When  I  turned  round  to  watch  her/'  adds 
the  naturalist,  "  I  really  fancied  I  could  detect  an  expression  of 
gratitude  in  her  eyes ;  and  I  experienced  at  that  moment  one  of 
the  most  vivid  sensations  of  pleasure  I  have  ever  enjoyed." 

Whilst  the  mother  is  devoting  herself  to  the  education  of  her 
brood,  the  father  pays  but  little  attention  to  his  progeny.  Jaded 
and  thin,  he  lives  a  solitary  and  quiescent  life,  more  sad  and  wild 
than  ever.  He  has,  in  fact,  to  submit  to  a  most  sudden  course 
of  moulting.  The  female  also  loses  her  plumage  after  the  young 
ones  are  hatched.  They  neither  of  them  regain  their  more  brilliant 
dress  until  the  end  of  autumn. 


238 


DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 


There  are  numerous  instances  proving  that  Wild  Ducks  are  sus- 
ceptible of  attachment  to  man,  and  it  is  certain  that  they  can  be 
easily  tamed.  They  also  breed  readily  with  the  Domestic  Duck ;  and 
the  crossed  birds  thus  produced  are  said  to  have  an  excellent  flavour, 
and  to  fatten  with  facility.  Mr.  St.  John,  in  his  "  Wild  Sports  in  the 
Highlands,"  remarks  that  he  has  frequently  caught  and  brought 
home  young  Wild  Ducks.  "  If  confined  in  a  yard  with  tame  birds 
for  a  week  or  two,  they  strike  up  a  companionship  which  keeps 
them  from  wandering  when  set  at  liberty.  Some  years  ago  I 
brought  home  three,  two  of  which  turned  out  to  be  Drakes.  I  sent 


Fig.  89.— Open  Duck-shooting. 

away  my  tame  Ducks,  and  the  next  season  I  had  a  large  family  of 
half-bred  and  wholly  Wild  Ducks,  as  the  tame  and  wild  bred 
together  quite  freely.  The  Wild  Ducks  which  have  been  caught 
turned  out  the  tamest  of  all, — throwing  off  all  shyness,  they  follow 
their  feeder,  and  will  eat  corn  out  of  the  hand  of  any  one  they 
know  ;  while  the  half-bred  birds  are  inclined  to  take  wing  and  fly 
away  for  the  purpose  of  making  their  nests  at  a  distance." 

The  flesh  of  the  Wild  Duck  is  much  esteemed.  But  they  are 
birds  which  are  very  difficult  to  approach,  in  consequence  of  their 
suspicious  nature  ;  and  in  order  to  get  even  a  long  shot  at  them, 


DUCK-SHOOTING.  239 

it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  stratagem.  Even  when  suc- 
cessful in  your  aim,  the  shot  often  fails  to  penetrate,  owing  to  the 
thick  layers  of  their  downy  covering.  Various  artifices,  there- 
fore, are  employed  to  lure  them,  all  of  which  require  some 
cleverness.  They  are  shot  from  a  watching-place,  being  seduced 
to  its  neighbourhood  by  employing  Domestic  Ducks  which  act  as 
decoys  (Fig.  88).  They  are  also  shot  from  huts  on  the  edge  of 
the  water.  Sometimes  they  are  attracted  by  means  of  lights,  or 
by  imitating  their  call.  Many  are  taken  in  nets,  in  decoy- weirs, 
and  in  snares  ;  they  are  sometimes  even  taken  by  means  of  baited 
fish-hooks,  and  many  other  strange  contrivances. 

The  ordinary  open  Duck-shooting,  .as  represented  in  Fig.  89,  is 
far  from  being  so  productive  as  some  of  the  former  methods,  but 
it  is  much  more  attractive.  No  sport  is  more  uncertain,  but  occa- 
sionally none  is  more  fruitful,  or  more  full  of  unexpected  successes. 

Duck-shooting  from  a  hut,  as  represented  in  Fig.  90,  is  the 
method  most  practised.  The  sportsmen  are  hidden  in  a  small  hut 
placed  on  the  edge  of  some  lake  or  river,  or  it  may  be  erected  in 
the  middle  of  the  water  on  a  heap  of  stones.  Here  they  lie  in  wait 
for  the  birds  in  order  to  get  a  close  shot  at  them.  They  generally 
use  fowling-pieces  of  great  length  and  large  calibre,  called  Duck- 
guns.  Shooting  from  Duck  punts  is  also  practised  all  round  the 
coast,  and  on  the  larger  lakes,  ponds,  and  estuaries. 

On  the  Saone,  the  gunners,  accompanied  by  a  boatman,  take 
their  places  in  a  long,  light,  narrow,  pointed  boat,  or  punt,  called 
a  fourquette.  The  two  men,  lying  down  in  the  bottom  of  the  boat, 
are  hidden  by  faggots  placed  in  front  of  them,  the  muzzle  of  the 
duck-gun  protruding  through  the  faggots.  Thus  floating  down 
the  river  among  the  Ducks,  they  get  an  opportunity  of  shoot- 
ing them  without  being  perceived.  Sportsmen  in  France  some- 
times employ  a  very  odd  artifice  to  baffle  the  suspicious  instinct 
of  'these  birds  :  a  man  disguises  himself  as  a  cow  by  means  of  an 
outline  of  the  animal  roughly  made  of  common  cardboard.  Under 
favour  of  this  disguise  he  gets  near  the  Wild  Ducks  without 
exciting  their  fears,  if  only  aware  how  to  make  good  use  of  his 
device ;  that  is,  if  he  describes  gentle  and  graceful  curves,  so  as  to 
advance  gradually  without  alarming  the  timid  Palmipedes.  But 
this  sport,  though  productive  enough  when  skilfully  managed, 


BBBf' 


THE  DOMESTIC  DUCK.  241 

is  not  unattended  with  danger.  A  sportsman,  who  had  dressed 
himself  up  in  this  disguise,  happened  inadvertently  to  find  his  way 
among  a  herd  of  cattle,  which,  detecting  the  imposture,  immediately 
ran  at  him  and  chased  him  about  the  meadow.  He  thought  himself 
fortunate  in  escaping  with  the  loss  of  his  disguise,  which  he  aban- 
doned to  the  fury  of  his  horned  assailants. 

Large  numbers  of  Ducks  are  taken  by  means  of  nets  and  various 
snares,  which  want  of  space  prevents  us  from  here  enumerating. 

The  Domestic  Duck,  Anas  domestica,  is  a  descendant  of  the  Wild 
Duck,  or,  as  some  think,  of  the  Shoveller.  The  first  tame  Duck, 
the  ancestor  of  a  family  since  so  prodigiously  multiplied,  probably 
proceeded  from  an  egg  which  had  been  taken  from  some  reedy 
marsh,  and  hatched  under  a  Hen. 

The  Duck,  however,  has  been  reduced  to  a  state  of  domesticity 
from  a  very  remote  period,  and  has  been  of  incalculable  utility  to 
mankind,  filling  in  our  poultry-yards  no  unworthy  place.  Ducks' 
eggs  are  a  wholesome  and  agreeable  article  of  food,  and  the  flesh 
of  the  bird  itself  is  most  savoury.  Epicures  highly  prized,  and 
rightly  so,  ihepdtes  defoie  de  canard  of  Toulouse,  Strasbourg,  Nerac, 
and  Amiens  (we  arrange  them  here  in  their  order  of  merit,  not 
according  to  Baron  Brisse's  dictum,  but  following  our  own  poor 
gastronomic  capabilities).  Their  feathers,  although  not  so  valuable 
as  those  of  the  Goose,  are  articles  of  considerable  importance  in 
commerce. 

Ducks  produce  large  profits  to  those  who  rear  them.  They  are 
by  no  means  choice  in  their  food.  Nothing  comes  amiss  to  their 
palate ;  the  corn  scattered  about  the  yard  which  is  disdained  by  other 
fowls,  and  the  meanest  remnants  of  the  leavings  of  the  table  and 
kitchen,  they  do  not  reject.  All  that  they  require  as  an  essential  is 
to  have  a  little  water  within  reach  in  which  they  can  paddle  at  will. 

Ducks'  eggs  are  often  put  under  a  Hen  to  be  hatched.  When 
seeking  her  food,  the  Hen  sometimes  leads  her  little  flock  to  the 
edge  of  water,  and  gives  them  a  glimpse  of  its  dangers.  But 
the  ducklings,  impelled  by  instinct,  rush  into  the  element  they  are 
most  partial  to.  The  poor  mother,  anxious  for  the  fate  of  the 
young  giddy-pates,  which  she  loves  as  her  own  offspring,  utters 
cries  of  terror.  She  would  resolutely  throw  herself  into  the  stream, 
and  perhaps  get  drowned,  were  she  not  soothed  by  seeing  them 


242  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

swimming  about,  happy  and  active.  This  shows  her  that  in  them 
she  cannot  recognise  her  own  flesh  and  blood. 

There  are  several  favourite  varieties  of  the  Domestic  Duck,  but 
those  of  Normandy  and  Picardy,  in  France,  and  the  Aylesbury 
Ducks  in  England,  are  the 'most  profitable.  Every  nation  rears 
Ducks  ;  but  the  Chinese  undeniably  most  excel  in  this  art.  For 
hatching  them  the  Celestials  have  recourse  to  artificial  heat.  They 
also  possess  some  superb  varieties,  which  have  been  recently  im- 
ported into  Europe,  and  are  at  the  present  time  the  glory  of 
our  ornamental  waters.  Magnificent  pairs  of  Chinese  Ducks, 
of  which  the  Mandarin  is  the  most  beautiful,  may  be  admired  in 
the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation  at  Paris,  at  the  Zoological  Gardens 
of  the  Regent's  Park,  and  also  in  the  artificial  waters  in  the  parks 
and  gardens  of  our  principal  cities. 

The  Common  Wild  Duck,  which  we  have  described,  is  the  type 
of  the  order  of  Ducks ;  but  there  are  about  seventy  other  species. 
The  most  remarkable  are  the  Widgeon,  the  Poachard,  the  Shoveller, 
the  Shieldrake,  the  Eider  Duck,  the  Teal,  the  Black  Diver,  and 
the  Merganser. 

THE  GOLDEN-EYED  GARROT. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Golden-eyed  Garrot :  McGillivray,  Yarrell,  Mon- 
tagu, Jenyns,  Selby.  Golden-eyed  Duck,  Gewdy  Duck,  Pied  Widgeon, 
Whistler. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  clangula:  Linn.,  Latham,  Temminck.  Anas 
glaucion:  Bonaparte,  Linn.,  Young,  Yarrell,  Latham.  Clangula  vul- 
garis :  Selby.  Clangula  clirysophthalmus  :  Jenyns. 

The  Golden-eyed  Garrot,  Anas  clangula,  is  sometimes  called  the 
Golden- eyed  Duck,  on  account  of  the  brightness  of  the  iris  of  its 
eye.  In  some  provinces  it  has  received  the  nickname  of  the 
Harlequin  Duck,  because  its  plumage,  at  a  little  distance  off,  looks 
as  if  it  was  composed  of  black  and  white  feathers  only.  This 
variegated  appearance,  which  occurs  only  in  the  males,  makes  a 
fine  show  on  the  dark  pools  and  lakes  of  the  north  Highlands  and 
Hebrides,  where  the  scenery  in  winter  is  excessively  dismal.  When 
undisturbed,  they  float  lightly  on  the  surface;  but  if  alarmed, 
they  are  said  to  sink  themselves  deeper  in  the  water,  diving 
rapidly,  and  swimming  with  great  velocity.  They  fly  also 
swiftly  in  a  direct  manner,  their  small,  stiff,  and  sharp-pointed 


THE  POACHAED.  243 

wings  producing  a  whistling  sound,  which  is  heard  in  calm  weather 
at  a  considerable  distance.*  They  rise  easily  from  the  water, 
striking  it  with  their  feet  and  wings  for  several  yards ;  but  under 
alarm,  or  when  there  is  a  breeze  rippling  the  surface,  they  can 
ascend  at  once.  During  winter  they  are  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  from  Shetland  and  Orkney  on  the  one  side,  and  from  the 
Lewis  Islands  on  the  other,  to  the  southern  extremity  of  England. 
In  Ireland,  also,  they  are  constant  winter  visitors  ;  but  they  do 
not  seem  to  breed  with  us,  betaking  themselves  to  the  Arctic 
regions  in  spring,  and  returning  in  October.  They  are  essentially 
lake  Ducks  ;  but  they  are  also  found  on  the  open  coasts  and 
estuaries.  Their  flesh  is  dark-coloured  and  unsavoury,  it  requiring 
all  the  art  of  the  cook  to  conceal  its  natural  fishy  flavour. 

They  are  generally  plentiful  in  our  markets,  where  the  young 
and  females  go  under  the  comprehensive  name  of  Widgeons. 

The  Golden- eyed  Gar  rot  flies  low  and  rapidly.  In  the  month 
of  November  it  reaches  France  in  small  flocks,  to  remain  till  the 
spring.  Then  it  returns  to  its  native  country — Sweden,  Norway, 
or  Lapland.  As  it  is  not  a  shy  bird,  the  sportsmen  on  the  sea- 
coasts  of  Picardy,  Normandy,  and  the  Landes  kill  large  quantities 
of  them. 

THE  POACHARD. 

ENGLISH   SYNONYMS. — Bed-headed   Poachard:    McGillivray.      Poachard 
Montagu.     Common  Poachard :  Jenyns. 

LATIN   SYNONYMS. — Anas  ferina:    Linn.,   Latham,    Temminck.     Aytliya 
ferina  :  Bonaparte,  McGillivray.     Fuligula  ferina :  Selby,  Jenyns. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Canard  melouin :  Temminck. 

The  Poachard  nearly  resembles  the  American  Canvas-back  Duck, 
but  is  unlike  any  British  species  in  form.  Its  body  (of  the  male)  is 
large,  full,  depressed,  and  elliptical  in  form ;  its  neck  long  and 
thick ;  the  head  large,  oblong,  compressed,  and  rounded  above.  The 
plumage  is  dense,  soft,  and  glossy.  The  feathers  on  the  fore  part 
of  the  head  are  small  and  stiff ;  on  the  remainder  of  the  head  and 
neck  soft,  silky,  and  blended.  The  wings  are  short,  curved,  narrow, 
and  pointed.  The  bill  black  to  a  little  beyond  the  nostrils,  the  inter- 
mediate space  light  greyish  blue.  The  head,  and  half  the  neck  all 
round,  are  of  a  fine  brownish- orange  tint. 

*  From  the  noise  made  by  their  wings  they  are  in  some  localities  called  Whistlers. 

R2 


244  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

The  Poachard  (Fig.  91)  is,  next  to  that  of  the  Common  Wild 
Duck,  the  variety  which  is  most  plentiful  on  our  waters.  It  is 
almost  as  large  as  the  latter ;  it  makes  its  nest  in  the  rushes  round 
pools  or  lakes,  and  feeds  upon  the  roots  of  grasses  and  aquatic 
plants,  also  on  worms,  mollusks,  and  small  fish.  They  are 
plentiful  in  the  eastern  counties  south  of  the  Humber,  and  in  the 
fen  counties ;  and  it  occurs  in  America,  where,  as  Dr.  Richardson 
states,  it  breeds  in  all  parts  of  the  fur  countries,  from  the  fiftieth 
parallel  to  their  most  northerly  limits.  Audubon  found  it  abun- 
dant in  winter  about  New  Orleans,  in  East  Florida,  and  in  Chesa- 
peak  Bay.  "  Although  they  dive  much  and  to  a  great  depth  in 
our  bays  and  estuaries,  yet,  when  in  the  shallow  ponds  of  the 


Fig.  91. — Poachard  (Anas  ferina). 


interior,  they  prefer  dabbling  in  the  mud  along  the  shores,  much 
in  the  manner  of  the  Mallard." 

This  bird  reaches  France  in  little  flocks  of  twenty  to  forty  in 
the  month  of  October.  It  can  easily  be  caught  in  nets. 

THE  SHOVELLER. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Blue-winged  Shoveller:  McGillivray.  Common  Sho- 
veller :  Selby,  Jenyns.     Shoveller :  Montagu. 

LATIN   SYNONYMS. — Anas  clypeata :  Linn.,  Latham,  Jenyns,  Temminck. 
Rliynchaspis :  Bonaparte,  McGillivray. 

FRENCH  SYNONYMS. — Canard  Souchet :  Temminck.  Rouge  de  Riviere :  Figuier. 

The  Shoveller  (Fig.  92)  is  very  common  on  the  Seine  and  the 
Marne,  where  it  is  called  Rouge  de  Riviere.  It  is  smaller  than 
the  Common  Wild  Duck,  and  has  a  very  long  bill,  with  the  upper 
mandible  of  a  semi- cylindrical  shape,  dilated  at  its  extremity, 


THE  SHOVELLER.  245 

somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  small  spoon.  This  bird  is  really 
charming  in  the  brilliancy  of  its  plumage.  Its  head  and  neck  are 
of  a  bright  green,  and  its  wings  are  variegated  with  streaks  of  a 
brilliant  pale  blue,  green,  white,  and  black.  It  is  called  "  red  " 
because  its  plumage  underneath  is  of  a  brownish-red  hue.  In  the 
month  of  February  it  abandons  the  icy  regions  of  the  north,  to 
visit  the  more  southern  lakes  and  rivers  of  France  and  Germany. 
With  us  it  is  only  a  straggler,  although  in  former  days,  when  our 
system  of  drainage  was  less  perfect,  it  was  a  more  frequent  visitor. 
In  France  considerable  numbers  of  the  Shovellers  remain  and  breed. 
It  dwells  in  marshes,  on  lakes  and  large  rivers,  being  seldom 


Fig.  92.— The  Shoveller  (Anas  clypeata). 

found  near  the  sea-coast ;  feeding  occasionally  on  vegetable  sub- 
stances, but  chiefly  on  fresh-water  mollusks,  worms,  and  insects, 
for  grubbing  up  which,  and  separating  them  from  the  sand  and 
mud,  its  bill  is  evidently  well  adapted. 

The  Shoveller  is  met  with  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  where  it  is  found  widely 
dispersed.  The  nest  is  constructed  on  the  borders  of  rushy  lakes, 
and  they  lay  from  eight  to  twelve  eggs.  When  first  hatched, 
the  young  ones  are  excessively  ugly,  their  beaks  being  almost 
as  large  as  their  bodies.  The  flesh  of  the  Shoveller  is  tender 
and  delicate,  and  preserves  its  pink  colour  even  after  it  is  cooked. 


246 


DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 


THE  SHIELDRAKE. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Burrow  Shielduck :  McGillivray.  Shieldrake :  Mon- 
tagu, Selby,  Jenyns.  Popular  names  :  Skeldrake,  Skelgoose,  Skieling 
Goose,  Burrow  Duck,  St.  George's  Duck,  Stockannet. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  tadorna:  Linn.,  Latham,  Temminck.  Tadorna 
mdpanser  :  Selby,  Bonaparte,  McGillivray. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Canard  Tadorne. 

This  very  beautiful  bird  is  a  permanent  resident  in  the  British 
Islands,  although  it  is  only  met  sparingly  along  our  coasts.     It 


Fig.  93.— The  Shieldrake  (Anas  tadorna). 

resorts  in  spring  and  summer  to  the  sandy  bays  on  the  west  coast 
of  England  and  Scotland,  from  the  Land's  End  to  the  Shetland 
Islands.  In  autumn  and  winter  it  is  found  on  the  eastern  coast 
both  of  Scotland  and  England,  where  many  individuals  remain 
to  breed.  It  is  generally  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  sandy, 
marshy  land  and  moist  meadows  near  the  sea.  It  walks  with 
a  quickish  step,  and  has  a  swift  flight,  something  like  the  Mallard, 
and  with  a  more  rapid  beat  of  the  wings  than  the  Goose. 

The   Shieldrake  (Fig.    93)  is   the  most  remarkable  of  all  the 


THE  EIDEE  DUCK.  247 

Duck  tribe,  not  only  from  its  size,  but  from  its  beauty,  and  the 
elegant  variations  of  its  plumage.  It  is  larger  and  stands  higher 
on  its  legs  than  the  Common  Wild  Duck.  The  plumage  is  full, 
soft,  and  blended ;  the  feathers  of  the  head  and  upper  neck  are 
small  and  silky.  The  colours  are  very  brilliant,  being  of  a  glossy 
blackish  green  on  the  head  and  neck,  with  purplish  reflections  in 
some  lights ;  a  broad  band  or  ring  of  white  is  found  on  the  neck,  and 
lower  another  of  orange-red  encircles  the  fore  part  of  the  body.  The 
rest  of  the  under  parts  are  white,  with  a  band  of  glossy  black  on 
the  breast  and  belly ;  the  back  white,  variegated  with  black,  white, 
russet,  and  green.  The  Shieldrake  abounds  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Baltic  and  North  Sea ;  it  is  also  found  in  America,  and  on  the 
southern  coasts  of  France,  as  well  as  on  the  edge  of  the  Northern 
Ocean.  The  nest  is  usually  placed  in  some  indentation  in  the  sand, 
the  female  frequently  choosing  a  Rabbit's  hole,  which  is  often 
situated  in  sand-banks.  The  poor  Babbit,  thus  turned  out  of  its 
burrow,  never  ventures  to  return  to  it  again. 


THE  EIDER  DUCK. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Eider  Duck  :  Montagu.  Common  Eider :  Selby. 
White-backed  Eider :  McGillivray.  Popular  names :  St.  Cuthbert's 
Duck,  Dunter  Goose. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  mollissima:  Linn.,  Latham,  Temminck.  Soma- 
teria  mollissima :  Jenyns,  Bonaparte,  McGillivray,  Selby. 

The  Eider  Duck,  though  remarkable  for  beauty  of  plumage, 
is  nevertheless  a  very  clumsy  bird.  In  form  it  is  bulky,  depressed, 
and  elliptical,  with  large,  oblong,  and  compressed  head.  The 
plumage  is  dense  and  fine  ;  the  head-feathers  are  short,  tufted,  and 
rounded,  and,  blending  with  the  terminal  filaments,  disunited ; 
the  wings  diminutive,  concave,  narrow,  and  pointed,  the  tips  of 
which  extend  to  the  base  of  the  tail,  which  is  short,  round,  and 
slightly  decurvated. 

The  Eider  Duck  is  the  northern  bird  which  supplies  the  soft, 
light,  and  warm  material  which  is  so  well  known  under  the  name 
of  "  eider-down."  It's  plumage  is  whitish,  but  the  upper  part  of 
the  head,  its  belly,  and  its  tail  are  black  ;  the  side  of  the  head,  the 
throat,  and  the  neck  are  white,  but  the  hair-like  feathers  on  the 
back  part  of  the  cheeks  and  nape  are  of  a  delicate  pale  green ;  the 


248  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

lower  part  of  the  neck  is  cream-coloured.  The  black  parts  from 
their  glossiness  are  conspicuous,  while  the  white  look  soiled ;  the 
head  and  back  are  also  shaded  with  a  green  tint. 

The  Eider  Duck  is  found  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions, 
occurring  in  diminished  numbers  in  the  latter.  In  the  Outer 
Hebrides  it  has  many  breeding-places,  and  some  nests  occur  on 
the  Bass  Eock,  and  on  the  Farn  Islands,  off  the  coast  of  Northum- 
berland, where  the  eggs  have  been  found  in  the  month  of  June. 
The  nest  is  made  in  some  hollow  in  the  turf,  and  is  composed 
of  sea-weed  and  dried  grass,  mixed  with  such  marine  plants  as 
Plantago  maritima  and  Coronopsis.  The  eggs,  which  vary  in 
number,  are  of  a  longish  oval  shape,  smooth  and  glossy,  and 
of  a  pale  greenish  grey.  When  they  have  been  laid,  the  female  is 
said  to  pluck  the  down  from  her  breast  and  cover  them  over  with 
it.  This  down,  when  shaken  out,  will  occupy  a  space  of  nine  or 
ten  inches.  This  peculiar  quality  of  the  down,  however,  caused 
by  its  elastic  character,  belongs  to  all  the  Anatidae,  and  probably 
not  less  so  to  the  Anserinse. 

The  principal  home  of  the  Eider  Duck  is  on  the  bleak  and 
frozen  sea-coasts  of  Northern  Europe,  and  its  food,  which  is  ob- 
tained by  diving,  is  the  bivalve  mollusca ;  also  Crustacea,  fishes, 
and  fish-spawn,  together  with  aquatic  worms.  It  makes  its  nest 
on  rocks  washed  by  the  sea.  Sometimes  two  female  birds  lay 
in  the  same  nest,  which  then  contains  from  nine  to  ten  eggs, 
for  each  of  them  lays  from  four  to  six.  The  nest  is  roughly 
built  with  sea-weed,  but  it  is  lined  inside  with  a  thick  layer 
of  the  bird's  own  down.  "  The  Eider  Ducks,"  as  we  learn  from 
Willoughby,  "  build  themselves  nests  on  the  rocks,  and  lay  good 
store  of  very  savoury  and  well- tasted  eggs ;  for  the  getting  of 
which  the  neighbouring  people  let  themselves  down  by  ropes 
dangerously  enough,  and  with  the  same  labour  gather  the  fea- 
thers, or  eider-dun,  our  people  call  them,  which  are  very  soft 
and  fit  to  stuff  beds  and  quilts ;  for  in  a  small  quantity  they  dilate 
themselves  much,  being  very  springy,  and  warm  the  body  above 
any  others.  These  birds  are  wont  at  set  times  to  moult  their 
feathers,  enriching  the  fowlers  with  this  desirable  merchandise." 
"  When  its  young  are  hatched/ '  adds  the  English  naturalist,  "  it 
takes  them  out  to  sea,  and  never  looks  at  land  till  next  breeding- 
time,  nor  is  seen  anywhere  about  our  coasts." 


THE  EIDEE  DUCK.  249 

There  seems  to  be  some  considerable  difference  between  the 
down  taken  from  the  dead  bird  and  that  which  the  female  plucks 
from  her  breast.  The  lightness  and  elasticity  of  the  latter  are 
such  that  two  or  three  pounds  of  it  squeezed  into  a  ball  which 
may  be  held  in  the  hand  will  expand  so  as  to  fill  a  quilt  large 
enough  to  cover  a  bed.  When  the  female  prepares  her  nest, 
she  lines  it  as  above  mentioned ;  when  she  has  laid  her  four  or 
six  eggs,  which  are  about  three  inches  in  length  and  two  in 
breadth,  she  strips  herself  a  second  time ;  should  this  down  be 
abstracted,  as  it  generally  is,  and  she  is  unable  to  supply  more, 
the  male  submits  himself  to  the  same  plucking  process,  his  contri- 
bution being  known  by  its  paler  colour. 

The  haunts  of  a  bird  yielding  so  valuable  an  article  are  carefully 
watched,  and  proprietors  do  everything  in  their  power  to  attract 
them  to  their  land ;  and  in  Scotland  and  Norway  the  districts 
resorted  to  by  the  Eider  Ducks  are  strictly  preserved,  everything 
likely  to  disturb  them  being  carefully  guarded  against.  Pennant 
thus  records  a  visit  he  paid  to  one  of  their  breeding-places  in  the 
Earn  Islands  on  the  15th  of  July,  1769  :— "  I  found  the  Ducks 
sitting,"  he  writes,  "and  I  took  some  of  the  nests,  the  base  of 
which  was  formed  of  sea-plants  and  covered  with  the  down. 
After  separating  it  carefully  from  the  plants  it  weighed  only  three- 
quarters  of  an  ounce,  yet  was  so  elastic  that  it  filled  a  greater 
space  than  the  crown  of  the  largest  hat.  These  birds  are  not 
numerous  on  the  isles,  and  it  was  observed  that  the  Drakes  kept  on 
the  side  most  remote  from  the  sitting-places.  The  Ducks  continue 
on  the  nest  till  you  come  almost  to  them,  and  when  they  rise,  they 
are  very  slow  fliers.  The  eggs  are  of  a  pale  olive  colour,  large, 
glossy,  and  smooth  ;  they  are  from  three  to  four,  warmly  bedded 
in  down."  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  in  his  "  Travels  in  Iceland," 
says  that  "  the  boat  in  its  approach  to  Vidoe  passed  multitudes  of 
Eider  Ducks,  which  hardly  moved  out  of  the  way ;  and  between 
the  landing-place  and  the  governor's  house  it  required  some 
caution  to  avoid  treading  on  the  nests,  while  the  Drakes  were 
walking  about  even  more  familiar  than  common  Ducks.  The  Ducks 
were  sitting  on  their  nests  all  round  the  house,  on  the  garden 
wall,  on  the  roof,  in  the  inside  of  the  house,  and  on  the  chapel." 

The  locality  where  the  Eiders  make  their  nests  is  always  diffi- 


250  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

cult  of  access.  Nevertheless,  tlie  inhabitants  of  Iceland,  Lapland, 
and  the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea  invariably  secure  them.  The 
harvest  which  is  derived  from  these  birds  is  the  source  of  a  con- 
siderable revenue,  eider-down  being,  in  fact,  a  very  large  article 
of  commerce.  The  rocks  where  the  Eider  Ducks  lay  their  eggs 
are  private  property,  and  are  handed  down  in  families  just  as  if 
they  were  the  most  valuable  possessions. 

THE  COMMON  TEAL. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Common  Teal :   Montagu,   Selby.      Green- winged 
Teal. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  crecca :   Linn.,  Latham,  Memming,  Temminck, 
Jenyns.     Querquedula  crecca :  Bonaparte,  Selby,  McGillivray. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Canard  Sarcelle. 

This  is  the  smallest  of  the  Duck  kind  known  in  the  British 
Isles.     It  is  a  remarkably  beautiful  bird,  and  in  colouring  as  well 


Fig.  94.— Common  Teal  (Anas  crecca). 

as  in  form  closely  resembles  the  Mallard,  but  is  much  smaller. 
It  frequents  marshy  places  and  the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
seldom  betaking  itself  to  estuaries  or  the  sea-coast  until  frost  sets 
in.  It  walks  with  ease,  swims  with  great  dexterity,  flies  rapidly, 
and  is  in  all  respects  remarkable  for  its  activity.  It  rises  from 
the  water  or  the  land  at  once,  and  shoots  away  with  great 
rapidity,  so  that  the  marksman  who  would  bring  it  down  must  be 
very  expert  with  his  gun.  It  breeds  in  the  long  reedy  grasses 
on  the  margin  of  lakes,  or  on  upland  moors  and  marshes.  Its  nest 


TEALS.  251 

is  a  mass  of  decayed  vegetable  matter  lined  with  down  and  feathers, 
in  which  it  lays  ten  or  twelve  eggs,  about  an  inch  and  three- 
quarters  in  length  and  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  breadth.  North 
of  the  Tay  they  are  found  occasionally  all  the  year  round,  returning, 
according  to  Mr.  St.  John,  year  after  year  to  breed,  if  left  undis- 
turbed in  the  process  of  incubation. 

"  If  we  compare,"  says  Mr.  McGillivray,  "  the  Common  Teal 
(Anas  crecca,  Linn.),  with  the  Garganey  (Anas  circia),  the  Gadwall 
(Anas  strepira),  and  the  Pintail  Duck  (Anas  acuta),  we  find  slight 
differences  in  the  form  of  the  bill,  in  the  elongated  lamella  of  the 
upper  mandible,  in  the  length  of  the  neck  and  tail ;  but  they  are 
all  so  intimately  connected  that,  unless  each  species  can  be  con- 
verted into  a  genus,  there  can  be  no  reason  for  separating  them." 
He  classes  them  accordingly  under  the  general  name  of  Teal. 

This  bird  makes  its  appearance  in  France  in  spring  and  autumn. 
It  breeds  in  all  the  temperate  climates  of  Europe,  and  pushes  on 
towards  the  south  as  the  winter  advances. 

Of  the  Teals  there  seem  to  be  three,  probably  four,  species, 
which  in  our  climate  may  be  divided  into  three — namely,  the 
Common  Teal,  Anas  crecca ;  the  Summer  Teal,  Anas  circia  ;  and 
the  Little  Teal,  or  Black  Diver,  Anas  nigra. 

According  to  Columella,  in  his  work  "De  He  Rustica,"  the 
Romans  succeeded  in  domesticating  the  Teal ;  but  the  bird  has 
reverted  to  an  entirely  wild  state,  which  is  much  to  be  regretted, 
for  it  would  have  formed  a  valuable  addition  to  the  poultry-yard, 
the  flesh  of  the  Teal  being  held  in  great  estimation. 

The  group  of  Ducks  usually  denominated  Teal,  Mr.  Swainson 
has  formed  into  the  sub- genus  Boschas,  in  which  he  also  includes 
the  Mallard,  or  Wild  Duck.  "As  this  is  the  most  numerous 
group,"  says  this  writer,  "  so  it  exhibits  a  greater  diversity  of  form 
among  the  species.  They  are  all,  however,  characterised  by  a 
bill  longer  than  the  head,  whose  breadth  is  equal  throughout ; 
sometimes  indeed  a  little  dilated,  but  never  contracted  at  the  tip, 
while  the  laminae  of  the  upper  mandible  are  entirely  concealed 
by  the  margin  of  the  bill."  "  The  beautiful  Anasjbrmosa,  which 
is  essentially  a  Teal,  differs,"  says  a  writer  in  the  "Penny 
Cyclopaedia,"  "in  the  greater  length  of  the  tail,  thus  connecting 
it  more  closely  with  the  Pintail  and  other  long-tailed  species ; 


252  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

while  the  bill,  which  is  depressed  in  form  in  the  Mallard  as  well 
as  in  the  Common  Duck,  is  convex,  with  projecting  laminae,  in  the 
Teal.  Such  is  the  case  with  the  Blue-winged  Teal  of  North 
America,  in  which  the  laminae  of  the  upper  bill  project  nearly  as 
much  as  in  the  Gadwall,  while  the  upper  mandible  exhibits  that 
sinuosity  at  the  base  which  is  seen  in  no  other  Duck  except  the 
Shoveller." 

Mr.  Selby  says  of  the  Common  Teal :  "  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  our  indigenous  breeds  seldom  quit  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  the  places  in  which  they  are  bred,  as  I  have  repeatedly 
observed  them  to  haunt  the  same  district  from  the  time  of  their 
being  hatched  till  they  separated  and  paired  on  the  approach  of 
the  following  spring.  The  Teal  breeds  in  the  long  rushy  herbage 
about  the  edges  of  lakes,  or  on  the  boggy  parts  of  upland  moors." 
Very  few  of  them  are  found,  according  to  Mr.  McGillivray,  in  the 
south  of  Scotland  during  the  summer  months.  In  winter,  one  of 
his  correspondents  informs  him,  it  unites  in  large  flocks,  the  Drakes 
having  then  a  whistle  like  the  Plover  ;  but  it  has  not  been  heard 
to  use  this  call  during  the  breeding  season.  The  boldness  of  the 
female  in  defence  of  her  young  is  very  affecting.  Mr.  St.  John 
describes  an  instance  which  occurred  in  Ross-shire.  He  was  riding 
along  when  an  old  Teal,  with  eight  newly-hatched  young  ones, 
crossed  the  road.  The  youngsters  could  not  climb  the  bank,  and  all 
squatted  flat  down  while  he  passed.  He  dismounted,  and  carried 
all  the  young  ones  a  little  distance  down  the  road  to  a  ditch,  the 
old  bird  fluttering  about  all  the  time,  and  frequently  coming  within 
reach  of  his  whip.  The  part  of  the  road  where  he  found  them 
passed  through  a  thick  fir- wood  covered  with  rank  heather,  and  it 
was  a  great  puzzle  to  him  how  such  little  things,  scarcely  bigger 
than  a  mouse,  could  have  struggled  through  it.  Next  day  he  saw 
them  all  enjoying  themselves  in  a  pond  a  little  distance  off,  where 
a  brood  of  Teal  appeared  every  year. 

Teal  are  less  timid  than  the  Wild  Duck,  and  the  sportsman,  there- 
fore, has  not  the  same  difficulty  in  getting  within  shot  of  them. 
They  breed  in  great  numbers  in  some  of  the  Highland  lochs, 
and  Mr.  St.  John  says  that  in  August  he  has  seen  perfect  clouds 
of  them  rise  from  some  calm,  glassy  lake  at  the  report  of  a  gun. 


\ 


VELVET  DUCK  AND  BLACK  SCOTEE.  253 

THE  VELVET  DUCK. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Velvet  Duck:  Montagu.  Velvet  Scoter:  Selby, 
Jenyns,  McGillivray.  Black  Duck,  White-winged  Black  Duck,  Black 
Diver,  Double  Scoter. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  fusca:  Linn.,  Latham,  Temminck.  Oidemia 
fusca :  Selby,  Jenyns,  Bonaparte,  McGillivray.  Anas  nigra :  French 
writers. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Canard  Macreuse :  Temminck. 

The  Scoters  (Oidemia,  Flemming)  have  the  bill  broad,  with 
dilated  margins,  and  coarse  lamelliform  teeth ;  a  swelling  above 
the  nostrils,  dividing  them  into  two  equal  parts,  both  large  and 
elevated. 

The  Velvet  Duck  is  the  largest  of  the  Scoters,  and  is  distinguish- 
able by  the  white  band  upon  its  wing,  much- depressed  body,  thick 
neck,  and  large,  oblong,  and  compressed  head.  They  make  their 
appearance  in  our  bays  and  estuaries  towards  the  end  of  autumn, 
and  depart  about  the  middle  of  April.  In  the  evening  they  fly 
out  to  sea  in  flocks  of  fifteen  or  twenty  when  the  weather  is 
favourable,  returning  to  the  shore  in  the  morning.  They  fly  low, 
but  with  considerable  speed,  moving  their  wings  quickly ;  and 
on  arriving  at  a  suitable  place,  they  relax  a  little  and  alight  on 
their  hinder  end,  the  body  being  kept  oblique.  On  settling,  they 
commence  forthwith  to  feed. 

THE  BLACK  SCOTER. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYM. — Black  Scoter :  Selby,  Jenyns,  McGillivray. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  nigra :  Linn.,  Latham,  Temminck.  Oidemia 
nigra :  Flemming,  Selby,  Jenyns,  Bonaparte,  McGillivray. 

The  Black  Scoter  arrives  on  our  shores  about  the  middle  of 
autumn  in  considerable  flocks,  and  is  seen  on  all  our  western  coast 
during  winter,  but  is  still  more  abundant  on  the  French  coast. 
It  closely  resembles  the  American  Scoter,  of  which  it  is  probably 
a  variety. 

The  Black  Scoter  (Oidemia  nigra)  is  almost  as  large  as  the 
Common  Wild  Duck,  but  is  shorter  and  more  thickly  made.  Its 
plumage  is  entirely  black ;  when  young  it  is  greyish. 

The  Black  Scoter  passes  its  life  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 


25*  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

never  ventures  on  the  land  except  when  driven  by  stress  of 
weather,  or  for  the  purpose  of  making  its  nest  in  the  marshes.  It 
flutters  rather  than  flies  over  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  makes  no 
use  of  its  wings,  except  to  escape  some  danger,  or  to  transport  itself 

from  one  point  to  another  with 
more  rapidity.  Its  legs,  in  flying, 
hang  down,  and  constantly  graze  the 
surface  of  the  water;  it  always 
appears  as  if  it  regretted  to  leave  its 
favourite  element. 

When  on  land,  these  birds  walk 
slowly  and  ungracefully  ;  but  in  the 
water  they  are  never  wearied.  Like 


faculty  of  being  able  to  run  about  on  the  waves.  They  are 
natives  of  both  the  Old  and  New  World.  About  the  month 
of  October,  driven  by  the  north  and  north-west  winds,  they 
come  down  from  the  northerly  countries  of  Europe,  and  visit  our 
Atlantic  coasts  and  the  Mediterranean. 

The  Black  Scoter  delights  in  the  salt-water  pools  adjacent  to  the 
sea,  and  the  sheltered  creeks  on  the  coast,  in  which  they  find  a 
refuge  against  storms.  In  these  places  they  become  the  objects  of 
the  terribly  destructive  sport  of  which  we  are  about  to  speak. 

Two  or  three  times  during  the  winter,  large  placards  exhibited 
in  certain  towns  of  the  department  of  Herault  —  at  Montpellier, 
Cette,  Agde,  &c.  —  announce  that  large  flocks  of  these  birds  (called 
foulques  in  the  country)  having  settled  down  on  some  adjacent 
lake,  a  day's  sport  will  be  had  with  them  on  a  given  date.  The 
day  is  turned  into  a  real  fete  by  the  sportsmen,  and  an  extra- 
ordinary concourse  of  people  are  brought  together.  Every  one 
starts  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  some  in  carriages,  some  in  carts, 
and  the  most  humble  among  them  on  donkeys  or  on  foot.  At 
daybreak  they  reach  the  margin  of  the  lake.  When  arrived  there, 
they  embark  in  boats,  each  provided  with  a  rower.  At  a  given 
signal  the  whole  flotilla  puts  off  from  the  shore,  and  advances 
slowly  towards  that  part  of  the  lake  in  which  the  Ducks  are  to  be 
found. 

These  unusual  preparations  are  a  cause  of  astonishment  to  the 


THE  BLACK  SCOTER.  255 

birds,  which  utter  gentle  cries  of  terror  as  they  crowd  together. 
The  boats,  however,  hem  them  in  on  all  sides,  gradually  contract- 
ing their  circle  so  as  to  shut  the  birds  up  in  an  enclosed  space. 
The  Black  Scoters,  seeing  the  enemy  advancing  upon  them,  in  their 
anxiety  take  to  diving  and  plunging  about.  But,  before  long, 
being  closely  pressed,  they  spread  their  wings  and  take  flight 
over  the  heads  of  their  enemies.  This  is  the  signal  for  the  com- 
mencement of  the  first  volley.  There  is  now  no  cessation  in  the 
resounding  reports  of  the  guns;  for  usually  no  less  than  five 
hundred  sportsmen  meet  on  the  surface  of  a  not  very  extensive 
lake,  such  as  those  of  Mauguio  or  Palavas.  The  massacre  lasts 
for  some  hours  ;  in  fact,  these  unfortunate  birds,  incapable  of 
flying  very  far,  are  pursued  from  place  to  place  by  the  pitiless 
boats,  which  are  soon,  like  the  bark  of  the  venerable  Charon,  laden 
with  the  dead.  When  no  birds  remain  on  the  lake,  the  boats 
return  to  the  shore,  rowing  along  the  banks  to  hunt  out  the 
wounded.  Three  thousand  of  these  birds  will  sometimes  fall 
before  the  murderous  guns  in  the  space  of  a  few  hours.  Almost 
as  a  matter  of  course,  quarrels  often  arise  among  the  sportsmen. 
The  cause  of  dispute  may  be  some  bird  which  has  been  shot  at 
from  several  boats  at  the  same  moment.  These  disturbances,  which 
usually  begin  with  shouts  and  abuse,  from  the  warmth  of  the 
southern  blood  sometimes  terminate  fatally.  In  this  sport  tumult 
reaches  its  utmost  pitch,  and  it  is  as  productive  of  danger  as  of 
pleasure.  Sometimes  a  boat  capsizes,  owing  to  the  excessive 
eagerness  of  the  rowers  ;  sometimes  a  sportsman  is  wounded  by  an 
awkward  neighbour,  or  two  or  three  men  fall  into  the  water  in 
trying  to  reach  their  prey.  Such  are  the  exciting  scenes  that  I  have 
often  witnessed  in  my  youth ;  they  were  the  supreme  delight  of 
the  boys  of  Clapas  (Montpellier).  The  same  sport  is  practised  at 
Hyeres,  in  the  Yar,  and  on  the  lake  of  Berre,  near  Marseilles. 

On  the  coasts  of  Picardy,  where  the  Black  Scoter  abounds  during 
winter,  very  destructive  means  are  used  for  their  capture.  Nets 
are  stretched  horizontally  in  the  water,  above  the  banks  of  shell- 
fish which  the  sea  has  left  uncovered  at  its  reflux,  and  on  which 
these  birds  feed.  "When  they  dive  to  seize  their  prey  they  become 
entangled  in  the  meshes  of  the  net,  from  which  they  cannot  escape. 

The  Black  Scoter  is  also  the  object  of  individual  sport  when  it 


256  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

does  not  arrive  in  these  immense  flocks.     It  is  then  shot  from  a 
boat  like  other  water-fowl. 

The  Black  Scoter  makes  but  a  poor  figure  on  aristocratic  tables. 
Its  flesh,  which  is  by  no  means  tender,  retains  a  very  decided  marshy 
flavour.  In  former  times  it  was  much  sought  after,  but  not  exactly 
for  its  culinary  qualities.  The  reason  this  bird  was  shown  such 
preference  was  because  people  were  permitted  to  eat  it  in  Lent  in 
place  of  fish. 

The  singular  notions  on  which  the  Church  of  Rome  founded 
this  toleration — a  toleration,  however,  which  still  exists  in  full 
force  even  at  the  present  day — is  as  follows.  The  councils  of  the 
twelfth  century  permitted  both  the  clergy  and  laity  to  eat  Black 
Scoters  during  Lent  because  it  was  a  generally-accepted  idea, 
founded  on  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  that  these  birds  were  not 
produced  from  an  egg,  but  had  a  vegetable  origin.  The  learned  of 
the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance,  seeing  large  flocks  of  these 
birds  suddenly  appear,  while  nothing  was  known  whence  they 
came,  indulged  in  all  kinds  of  conjectures  to  explain  this  mysterious 
fact.  They  attributed  to  them  origins  which  were  marvellous ; 
one  conjecturing  that  the  feathery  appearance  in  the  ciliated  ten- 
tacles of  certain  mollusks  which  inhabit  the  barnacle  shell  changed 
into  Black  Scoters ;  others  imagined  that  these  birds  proceeded 
from  the  wood  of  rotten  fir-trees  which  had  been  long  floating 
about  in  the  sea,  or  even  from  the  fungi  and  marine  mosses  which 
cling  to  the  debris  of  wrecked  ships ;  others,  again,  went  so  far 
as  to  assert  that  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  especially  the  Orkney 
Isles,  produced  a  tree  the  fruit  of  which,  falling  into  the  sea, 
developed  into  the  bird  which  was  called  Anser  arboreus,  in  order 
to  commemorate  its  origin :  this  bird  they  imagined  was  the  Black 
Scoter. 

The  naturalists  who  gave  expression  to  these  transcendental 
views  might  certainly  boast  that  they  had  Aristotle  on  their  side ; 
for  this  distinguished  philosopher  believed  in  the  spontaneous 
generation  of  various  kinds  of  animals.  He  asserted,  for  instance, 
that  rats  sprung  from  decayed  vegetables,  and  that  bees  proceeded 
from  the  carcass  of  an  ox.  Who,  for  instance,  is  unacquainted 
with  the  fine  episode  of  the  fourth  book  of  Yirgil's  Georgics, 
where  this  poetic  fiction  is  related  in  beautiful  verse? 


THE  VELVET  DUCK.  257 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  Pope  Innocent  III.,  better 
instructed  than  Aristotle  in  this  department  of  natural  history, 
passed  sentence  on  all  these  tales  by  forbidding  its  use  during 
Lent ;  but  no  one,  either  in  the  monasteries,  the  castles,  or  the 
taverns,  has  ever  looked  at  this  interdict  of  the  sovereign  pontiff 
in  a  serious  point  of  view. 

This  controverted  question,  however,  met  with  an  unexpected 
solution.  Gerard  Yeer,  a  Dutch  navigator,  in  one  of  his  voyages 
to  the  north  of  Europe,  found  some  eggs  of  the  Yelvet  Duck. 
Being  ignorant  of  their  nature,  he  brought  them  home,  put  them 
under  a  hen,  and,  when  they  were  hatched,  the  produce  exactly 
resembled  the  birds  which  were  asserted  by  the  ancients  to  proceed 
from  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter.  Gerard  Yeer  made  the 
announcement  that  these  birds  bred  in  Greenland,  thus  affording 
a  complete  explanation  of  the  absence  of  their  eggs  in  southern 
countries. 

This  discovery  of  the  Dutch  navigator  met  with  no  favourable 
reception.  The  custom  of  eating  the  Yelvet  Duck  in  Lent  had 
been  long  established  ;  the  Church  allowed  it,  and  every  one  was 
satisfied.  Gerard  Yeer  was  sent  back  to  his  galliot,  and  all  kinds 
of  reasons  were  found  for  satisfying  the  consciences  and  stomachs 
of  the  faithful,  which  had  been  justly  alarmed. 

There  was,  however,  no  deficiency  in  the  arguments  brought 
forward.  It  was  asserted  that  the  feathers  of  the  Yelvet  Duck 
were  of  quite  a  different  nature  from  those  of  other  birds ;  that 
their  blood  was  cold,  and  that  it  did  not  coagulate  when  shed ; 
that  their  fat,  like  that  of  fishes,  had  the  property  of  never  harden- 
ing. The  analogy  between  the  Yelvet  Duck  and  the  fishes  being 
thus  clearly  established,  the  permission  of  the  councils  remained 
in  full  force. 

Finally,  as  the  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renais- 
sance were  but  indifferent  naturalists,  and  had  very  vaguely 
described  the  Yelvet  Duck,  the  same  mode  of  reproduction  was 
ascribed  to  several  other  marsh-birds.  As  a  matter  of  course, 
the  same  toleration  in  Lent  was  extended  to  them.  The  faith- 
ful were  thus  in  the  habit  of  indulging  in  various  other  birds, 
such  as  the  Brent  and  Bernicle  Geese.  The  opposing  claims 
of  devotion  and  appetite  being  thus  harmlessly  satisfied,  no  one 


258  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

cared  to  object  to  a  supposition  which  gave  such  general  satis- 
faction. 

"We  must  add  that  this  confusion  of  names  still  exists,  for  on 
the  sea-coast  several  varieties  of  the  Duck  genus  still  go  by  the 
name  of  the  privileged  bird. 

There  are  five  principal  varieties  of  this  species.  The  most 
remarkable  are  the  Yelvet  Duck  (Oidemia  fusca),  the  Common 
Black  Scoter  (0.  nigra),  and  the  Great-billed  Black  Diver  (0. 
perspicellata}. 

THE  GREAT-BILLED  SCOTER. 

ENGLISH   SYNONYMS. — Surf  Scoters :    Selby,  McGillivray,   Jenyns.      Surf 
Duck,  Black  Duck :  Pennant. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  perspicellata :  Linn. ,  Latham,  Temminck.    Oidemia 
perspicellata :  Selby,  Jenyns,  Temminck,  McGillivray. 

FRENCH  SYNONYMS. — Macreuse  a  large  free,  Canard  marchand. 

The  Great-billed  Scoter  is  a  rare  bird  in  this  country,  the  only 
positive  evidence  of  its  occurrence  being  a  female,  shot  in  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  mentioned  by  Mr.  Gould,  and  a  recently-shot  specimen 
sent  to  Mr.  Bartlett  for  preservation,  and  from  which  Mr.  Yarrell 
derived  his  description.    It  is,  however,  stated  by  Audubon  as  being 
abundant  in  winter  on  the  eastern  coast  of  America,  as  far  south 
as  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.     In  Labrador  he  found  a  female 
on  its  nest  in  a  marsh ;  the  nest  was  snugly  placed  amidst  the  tall 
blades  of  a  bunch  of  grass,  and  was  raised  fully  four  inches  above 
the  roots.     It  was  composed  of  withered  and  rotten  weeds,  the 
former  being  circularly  arranged  over  the  latter,  producing  a  well- 
rounded  cavity,  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  two  and  a  half  deep  ;  the 
border  of  the  inner  cup  being  lined  with  down  from  the  birds  after 
the  manner  of  the  Eider  Duck.     In  it  lay  five  eggs,  the  smallest 
he  had  ever  seen  in  a  Duck's  nest.     They  are  equally  rounded 
at  both  ends,  about  two  inches  and  a  half  long,  and  an  inch  and 
five-eighths  in  their  greatest  breadth ;  the  shell  perfectly  smooth, 
and  of  a  uniform  yellow  colour. 

The  plumage  of  the  bird  is  soft,  dense,  and  glossy ;  the  feathers 
of  the  head  and  neck  blended  and  velvety;  the  wings  short, 
narrow,  and  pointed ;  the  upper  mandible  orange  red,  the  protu- 
berance on  each  side  yellowish  grey ;  at  the  base  is  a  large  square 


THE  GOOSANDEK.  209 

patch  of  black,  margined  with  orange  red,  with  a  patch  of  greyish 
white  in  front. 

Intimately  allied  to  the  Ducks  in  many  respects,  and  to  the 
Divers  and  Cormorants  in  others,  are  the  Mergansers,  a  very  dis- 
tinct family,  characterised  by  a  large,  elongated,  and  depressed 
body  ;  long  and  slender  neck ;  oblong,  compressed  head,  narrow- 
ing anteriorly ;  bill  straight,  narrow,  and  slender,  sub- cylindrical 
outwards,  wide  at  the  base,  and  abruptly  hooked  at  the  tip  ; 
margins  of  both  mandibles  serrated ;  the  teeth  directed  backwards. 

THE  GOOSANDER. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Goosander :  Montagu,  Selby,  Jenyns.'  Dun 
Diver :  Montagu.  Buff-breasted  Goosander :  McGillivray.  Greater 
Goosander,  Saw-bill,  Jacksaw. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Mergus  merganser:  Linn.,  Latham,  Temminck,  Selby, 
Jenyns.  Mergus  castor  :  Linn.,  Latham.  .Merganser  castor:  Bonaparte, 
McGillivray. 

FRENCH  SYNONYMS. — Bieune  of  the  old  French.     Grand  Harle :  Temminck. 

The  Merganser  (Mergus,  from  mergere,  to  submerge)  is  some- 
times separated  from  the  Ducks.  Prince  Charles  Bonaparte 
includes  in  it  two  sub- genera,  the  Smew  (Mergus)  and  the  Mer- 
ganser of  Leach.  The  Merganser  is  distinguished  by  its  slender 
and  almost  cylindrical  bill,  armed  on  the  edges  with  points  turning 
backwards,  somewhat  resembling  the  teeth  of  a  saw ;  yet,  in  its 
general  appearance,  plumage,  and  habits,  this  bird  bears  much 
resemblance  to  the  Ducks. 

The  Mergansers  very  rarely  come  on  land ;  they  are  exclusively 
aquatic,  and  frequent  rivers,  lakes,  and  pools,  preferring  them  to 
estuaries  ;  but  they  may  be  seen  in  summer  fishing  in  the  sea-lochs 
of  Scotland.  The  Latins  gave  them  the  name  of  Mergm  in  con- 
sequence of  their  habit  of  swimming  with  the  body  submerged — 
the  head  only  appearing  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

These  birds  feed  on  fish,  of  which  they  destroy  an  immense 
number.  They  also  commit  serious  depredations  on  the  spawning 
beds.  They  are  able  to  accumulate  a  large  quantity  of  air  in 
the  trachea,  and  can  therefore  remain  some  time  under  water 
without  breathing.  They  take  advantage  of  this  for  diving  to  the 


260  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

bottom  to  seek  their  prey,  and  they  will  often  travel  to  a  consider- 
able distance  before  they  appear  again  on  the  surface.  The 
activity  they  display  in  pursuit  of  their  prey  is  very  great ;  for, 
in  order  to  accelerate  their  speed  in  swimming,  they  make  use  of 
their  wings  as  well  as  of  their  feet.  The  Merganser  is  in  the 
habit  of  swallowing  fish  head  first ;  consequently,  it  often  happens 
that  the  remainder  of  the  body  of  their  prey  is  too  bulky  to  be 
easily  gorged ;  they  are,  however,  very  far  from  wishing  to  get 
rid  of  this  temporary  inconvenience,  but  wait  till  it  becomes 
gradually  absorbed.  Sometimes  the  digestion  of  the  fish/s  head 
has  already  commenced  in  the  bird's  stomach  whilst  the  tail  is 
still  projecting  from  its  bill. 

The  flight  of  the  Merganser  is  rapid  and  prolonged,  without 
reaching  any  great  elevation.  Their  gait  on  land  is  awkward  and 
tottering.  They  generally  inhabit  temperate  regions  during  the 
winter,  and  in  spring  return  to  the  high  latitudes  of  both  hemi- 
spheres, which  are  their  breeding-places.  They  lay  from  eight 
to  fourteen  whitish-coloured  eggs,  either  on  the  shore  between 
two  large  stones,  or  in  thickets  of  grass  on  the  edge  of  lakes  and 
rivers :  occasionally  a  hollow  in  a  tree  is  selected ;  but  it  is  in- 
variably near  water.  Their  nest  is  composed  of  dry  grass,  sedges, 
fibrous  roots,  and  other  similar  materials,  with  a  lining  of  down 
plucked  from  the  breast. 

The  Merganser  is  a  regular  visitor,  in  winter,  to  our  coasts  and 
inland  lakes.  It  breeds  in  North  Uist  and  others  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides.  Its  flesh  is  unedible  except  when  young. 

THE  SMEW. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Smew :    Montagu,   Selby,   Jenyns.      Pied    Smew  : 
McGrillivray.     White  Nun  :  Selby.     Pied  Diver,  Vane  Widgeon. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Mergus  albellus:    Linn.,  Latham,  Jenyns,  Bonaparte, 
McGillivray.     Mergus  minutus  :  Young,  Linn.,  Latham. 

FRENCH  SYNONYMS. — Harle  Piette  :  Temminck.     Harle  Huppe  :  Buffon. 

Like  its  congeners,  the  Smew  is  a  native  of  the  northern  regions 
of  both  continents,  retiring  southward  as  the  winter  approaches, 
and  spreading  in  great  numbers  over  Germany,  France,  and  Italy 
in  October  and  November,  and  returning  northward  in  April. 


THE  SMEW.  261 

North  of  the  Humber  it  is  a  rare  bird.  Montagu  says  it  is  plentiful 
on  the  south  coast,  but  that  it  is  not  known  to  breed  with  us.  It  is  of 
elegant  form,  smaller  than  the  Merganser,  being  only  fifteen  inches 
in  length.  The  plumage  of  the  head  is  full,  soft,  and  blended ; 
the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  nape  elongated,  forming  a  gra- 
dually narrowing  crest ;  the  wings  short,  rather  narrow,  slightly 
convex,  and  pointed — when  closed  reaching  to  within  an  inch  and  a 
half  from  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  male  bird,  at  maturity,  has  a 
great  spot  of  greenish  black  on  each  side  of  the  bill,  and  a  longi- 
tudinal one  on  the  occiput.  The  tufted  crest,  neck,  scapulars, 


Fig.  96.— The  Smew  (Mergus  albeltus). 

small  coverts  of  the  wing,  and  all  the  lower  parts  are  pure  white ; 
the  upper  part  of  the  back,  the  two  crescents  under  the  sides  of 
the  breast,  and  the  edges  of  the  scapulars  are  deep  black ;  the 
tail  is  ash-coloured ;  sides  and  thighs  are  varied  with  ash-coloured 
zigzags ;  bill,  tarsi,  and  toes  are  bluish  ash ;  webs  black,  and  the 
iris  brown.  In  habit  the  Smew  greatly  resembles  the  Goosan- 
ders. 

The  Goose  ( Anser)  forms  a  special  genus  among  the  Palmipedes. 
It  is  a  bird  which  is  often  spoken  of  with  contempt,  though  very 
improperly,  for  few  birds  are  able  to  afford  mankind  the  amount 
of  service  rendered  by  the  despised  Goose. 


262  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 


THE  WILD  GOOSE. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Grey  Lag  Goose  :  Montagu,  Selby.  Wild  Goose : 
Jenyns.  Marsh  Goose,  Grey  Lag,  Grey  Goose,  Fen  Goose. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  anser:  Linn.,  Latham.  Anser  ferus:  Temminck, 
Jenyns,  McGillivray.  Anser  palustris  :  Selby.  Anser  cinereus  :  Bona- 
parte. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Oie  Cendree  :  Temminck. 

The  "Wild  Goose,  though  by  no  means  elegant  in  form,  has 
none  of  the  awkwardness  of  the  Domestic  Goose,  which  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  be  descended  from  it.  The  body  of  Anser 
ferus  is  large  and  full ;  the  neck  long,  at  its  upper  part  slender ; 
the  head  proportionately  small,  ovate,  oblong,  and  rather  com- 
pressed ;  the  feathers  of  the  head  are  small,  short,  rounded  and 
blended,  of  a  greyish  brown ;  those  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
neck  small  and  oblong,  and  arranged  in  ridges  with  deep  inter- 
vening grooves,  gradually  getting  paler  until  it  fades  into  greyish 
white ;  the  wings  are  long,  reaching  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  tail, 
the  feathers  of  the  fore  part  of  the  back  and  wings  close,  broad, 
and  abrupt ;  the  prevailing  colour  a  bluish  grey. 

The  Geese  in  many  respects  resemble  the  Ducks  and  Swans,  but 
they  are  less  aquatic  in  their  habits,  keeping  at  a  distance  from  large 
bodies  of  water,  and  frequenting,  by  preference,  moist  meadows  and 
marshes,  where  they  find  herbage  and  various  kinds  of  seeds,  on 
which  they  principally  feed.  They  swim  very  little,  and  seldom 
dive.  They  make  their  nests  on  the  ground,  and  lay  from  six  to 
eight  eggs,  which  are  hatched  in  rather  more  than  one  month.  The 
young  ones  walk  about  and  find  their  own  food  almost  as  soon 
as  they  are  hatched.  Geese,  especially  the  male  birds,  moult  twice 
a  year — in  June  and  November, 

The  noise  made  by  a  flock  of  Geese  seeking  their  food  can  be 
heard  at  a  great  distance.  Their  call,  which  is  repeated  at  regular 
intervals,  somewhat  resembles  the  sound  of  a  trumpet  or  clarion, 
and  is  accompanied  by  a  continuous  muttering  noise  in  shorter 
notes.  The  hissing  common  to  both  Geese  and  Ducks  is  pro- 
duced by  two  membranes  placed  in  juxtaposition  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  trachea.  These  two  membranes  are  situated  side  by  side 
in  the  two  bony  and  elongated  openings  of  the  internal  larynx, 


WILD  GEESE.  263 

from  which  the  two  principal  bronchia  have  their  origin.  A  close 
examination  of  this  organ  in  the  Goose  is  supposed  to  have  con- 
tributed to  the  invention  of  certain  wind  instruments,  such  as  the 
flute,  bassoon,  bagpipes,  clarionet,  and  even  the  organ. 

When  attacked,  the  Goose  makes  a  hissing  noise  similar  to  that 
of  some  serpents.  Endeavours  have  been  made  to  express  this 
sound  by  the  three  Latin  words  strepit,  gratitat,  stridet.  The 
slightest  noise  wakes  them  up,  when  they  at  once  give  the  signal 
of  alarm,  which  immediately  warns  the  whole  flock  of  approaching 
danger.  Thus,  some  authors  have  maintained  that  the  Goose  is  more 
vigilant  than  the  Dog ;  and  in  proof  of  this,  instance  the  story  of  the 
Geese  of  the  Capitol,  whose  wakefulness  saved  the  Romans  from 


i'ig.  97.— Wild  Goose  (Anscr  ferus). 

an  attempted  assault  on  the  part  of  the  Gauls.  The  Roman  people 
were  grateful  enough  to  award  an  annual  sum  for  the  maintenance 
of  a  certain  number  of  Geese  in  the  Capitol ;  and  on  the  anni- 
versary of  the  day  when  their  services  had  been  so  valuable,  they 
were  in  the  habit  of  whipping  the  Dogs  in  front  of  the  building, 
as  a  retrospective  punishment  for  their  culpable  carelessness. 

The  Gauls,  on  the  other  hand,  never  pardoned  the  Goose  for 
having  baffled  their  attack.  Frenchmen,  even  in  the  present  day, 
possibly  the  descendants  of  the  proud  companions  of  Brennus,  or  of 
the  conquerors  of  Northern  Italy,  appear  still  to  inherit  this  ances- 
tral hatred.  At  some  of  the  French  village  fetes  they  are  in  the 
habit  of  hanging  up  Geese  by  the  feet  in  order  to  cut  through 
their  necks  with  a  sword,  or  to  beat  them  to  death  by  hurling 


264  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

stones  and  sticks  at  their  heads.  At  every  blow  the  poor  creature 
must  suffer  dreadful  agony,  but  it  is  left  in  its  pain  until  it  dies  a 
lingering  death.  It  is  then  borne  away  in  triumph  by  the  con- 
queror, and  its  mutilated  carcass  afterwards  appears  at  his  table  to 
be  devoured  by  him  and  his  companions.  Happily,  the  Assemblee 
Rationale  has  now  forbidden  this  brutal  and  sanguinary  amuse- 
ment as  being  dishonourable  to  a  civilised  nation. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  why  the  Goose  should  have  been  considered, 
from  the  earliest  ages,  as  the  symbol  of  stupidity.  Their  sight 
is  sharp  and  piercing,  and  they  enjoy  a  remarkable  delicacy  of 
hearing.  Their  sense  of  smell,  moreover,  may  be  compared  to 
that  of  the  Crow.  Their  watchfulness  seems  never  at  fault.  When 
they  either  sleep  or  eat,  one  of  their  number  is  placed  as  a  sentinel. 
With  neck  stretched  out  and  head  in  the  air,  it  scrutinises  the 
distant  horizon  in  every  direction,  ready,  at  the  slightest  alarm, 
to  give  a  signal  of  danger  to  the  rest  of  the  flock. 

The  flight  of  Wild  Geese  indicates  no  slight  degree  of  intel- 
ligence. They  place  themselves  in  two  slanting  lines,  forming  a 
<  shaped  angle,  or  sometimes  in  a  single  line,  if  the  flock  is  not 
very  numerous.  This  arrangement  allows  each  bird  to  follow  the 
main  body  with  the  least  possible  amount  of  resistance,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  keep  its  rank.  When  the  individual  which  leads 
the  flight  begins  to  be  fatigued,  it  takes  its  place  in  the  rear, 
each  bird  in  its  turn  leading  the  flock. 

These  birds  are  too  numerous  to  travel  in  large  flocks  ;  it  would 
appear,  therefore,  as  if  they  fixed  upon  some  points  where  they 
separate  in  order  to  distribute  themselves  over  various  countries. 
In  Europe  Wild  Geese  come  principally  from  Asia.  On  their 
arrival  here,  the  flocks  disperse  themselves  over  different  districts. 
In  our  land  they  make  their  appearance  towards  the  beginning  of 
winter,  and  depart  towards  the  end  of  April.  Formerly  they  are 
said  to  have  been  abundant,  and  to  have  been  even  permanently  resi- 
dent ;  now  they  are  rare,  and  are  seldom  known  to  breed  with  us. 
On  their  arrival  they  resort  to  open  pastures  and  cultivated  fields, 
feeding  on  the  roots  of  aquatic  grasses,  young  corn,  clover,  and 
other  green  herbage.  On  an  alarm  being  given  by  the  sentinel  on 
watch,  they  all  erect  their  necks,  run  forward,  and,  uttering  their 
loud,  grating  cry,  spring  into  the  air,  departing  with  a  heavy, 


WILD  GEESE.  265 

measured,  and  lofty  flight.  According  to  Temminck,  "  the  "Wild 
Goose  inhabits  the  seas,  coasts,  and  marshes  of  eastern  countries, 
seldom  advancing  northward  beyond  the  fifty-third  degree ;  it  is 
abundant  in  Germany  and  in  Central  Europe ;  occasionally,  in  its 
migrations,  it  halts  in  small  numbers  in  Holland."  Those  which 
visit  France  are  the  harbingers  of  the  frost ;  and  when  they  make 
an  early  appearance,  it  is  well  known  that  the  winter  will  be  a 
severe  one. 

Although  they  live  little  in  the  water,  Wild  Geese  repair  every 
evening  to  the  ponds  and  rivers  in  their  neighbourhoods  to  pass 
the  night ;  so  that  the  Wild  Goose  only  takes  to  the  water  when 
the  Wild  Duck  is  leaving  it.  These  birds  are  very  difficult  to 
shoot  in  consequence  of  their  lofty  flight,  from  which  they  only 
descend  when  they  see  the  water  on  which  they  are  to  pass  the 
night.  Even  then  their  excessive  caution  renders  nearly  useless 
all  the  stratagems  of  the  sportsman.  The  attempt  is  sometimes 
made  to  take  them  in  the  evening  with  nets,  the  wild  ones 
being  attracted  by  means  of  tame  Geese,  which  are  trained  to  act 
as  decoys. 

The  Ostiacs,  on  the  banks  of  the  Obi,  in  Siberia,  pile  up  the  snow, 
and,  with  the  addition  of  branches,  construct  small  huts.  Near 
these  they  place  some  stuffed  birds  in  the  water ;  the  Wild  Geese 
dart  on  these  and  peck  them  to  pieces.  While  thus  busily  occu- 
pied, they  can  easily  be  shot  or  taken  with  nets. 

But  the  most  curious  and  difficult  mode  of  capturing  them  is 
that  followed  by  the  adventurous  inhabitants  of  St.  Kilda,  a  little 
islet  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland.  Wild  Geese  of  several  species 
make  their  nests  there  in  large  flocks  at  the  foot  of  the  sea- washed 
rocks  which  surround  the  island.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  the 
Wild  Goose,  Anser  ferus,  is  found  among  these.  Both  for 
strength  and  economy,  the  inhabitants  use  a  cord  made  of  thongs 
of  twisted  cow-hide  covered  with  sheep- skin.  With  a  rope  of 
this  description,  two  men  climb  to  the  top  of  a  cliff;  there  they 
fasten  themselves  to  either  end  of  the  cord ;  then  one  lets  him- 
self down  over  the  face  of  the  cliff,  and  the  other  clings  to 
the  rugged  points  above.  The  first  man  fills  a  sack  with  the 
eggs,  and  suspends  by  their  claws  as  many  goslings  as  he  can 
hang  to  various  parts  of  his  person.  When  he  has  made  his 


266  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

collection,  his  companion  hoists  him  up  by  main  force,  twisting 
the  cord  round  his  own  body  after  the  manner  of  a  windlass. 

This  aerial  and  dangerous  sport  is  very  productive.  A  cow- 
hide rope  forms  a  large  portion  of  the  dowry  of  a  St.  Kilda  girl, 
and  very  often  it  is  the  sole  dependence  of  a  household.  The 
hardy  sportsmen  have  so  much  coolness  and  nerve,  that  accidents 
very  rarely  happen. 

The  Bean  Goose  (Anas  segetum)  of  most  authors  differs  from 
the  preceding  in  being  somewhat  smaller,  and  having  the  bill  more 
slender,  although  not  much  shorter ;  the  hind  part  of  the  back  is 
also  dark  brown.  In  its  habits  it  closely  resembles  the  Wild 
Goose,  for  -which  it  has  probably  been  frequently  mistaken.  Yast 
flocks  of  this  species  frequent  the  northern  waters,  such  as 
Montrose  Bay,  the  mouth  of  the  Findhorn,  and  especially  the 
inland  waters  of  Ross  and  Sutherland — thirty  or  forty  pairs 
having  their  nests  annually  on  Lake  Laighal. 

The  Domestic  or  Common  Goose  (Anser  sylvestris)  has  been 
made  the  source  of  great  utility  and  profit.  It  appears  to  be  the 
civilised  offspring  of  the  Wild  Goose,  to  which  it  bears  the  same 
proportions  as  other  tame  animals  bear  to  their  prototypes.  Mr. 
Yarrell  was  of  opinion  that  the  White-fronted  Goose  {Anser  albi- 
frons)  has  concurred,  with  the  Anser  ferus,  in  producing  our 
domestic  race. 

In  our  poultry-yards  the  Domestic  Goose  begins,  in  the  month 
of  March,  to  lay  from  eight  to  twelve  eggs.  When  they  remain 
on  the  nest  longer  than  usual,  they  are  about  to  "  sit."  Incuba- 
tion lasts  for  a  month.  No  birds  are  more  easily  reared  than 
goslings ;  they  issue  from  the  shell  full  of  life,  and  covered  with 
a  delicate  down.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  keep  them  shut  up 
for  the  first  few  days  ;  if  the  weather  permits,  they  may  soon  be 
released.  Their  first  food  is  a  paste  formed  of  barley  roughly 
ground,  mixed  with  bran,  moistened,  and  boiled  in  milk,  with  the 
addition  of  a  few  chopped-up  lettuce  leaves.  When  at  large,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  them  carefully  from  hemlock  and  other  poisonous 
plants. 

Our  ancestors,  the  Celts,  the  Gauls,  and  the  Franks,  reared  a 
large  number  of  these  birds,  and  carried  on  a  considerable  trade  in 
them,  especially  with  Italy.  Pliny,  in  his  "  Natural  History," 


DOMESTIC  GEESE.  267 

relates  that  he  has  seen  immense  droves  of  Geese,  which  were 
making  their  way  towards  Borne  from  different  districts  of  Gaul, 
but  especially  from  the  country  of  the  Morini  (now  forming  the 
departments  of  the  Nord  and  Pas-de-Calais).  The  conductors  of 
these  feathered  flocks  were  in  the  habit  of  placing  the  tired  ones  in 
front,  so  that,  being  pushed  forward  by  the  whole  column  behind 
them,  they  were  forced  to  move  on  in  spite  of  themselves.  In  the 
present  day,  numerous  flocks  of  Geese  are  driven  in  the  same 
manner  into  Spain  from  the  French  departments  of  Lot,  Dor- 
dogne,  Lot-et- Garonne,  Gers,  Tarn,  &c. 

The  Goose,  in  its  coarse  and  somewhat  democratic  condition,  was 
good  enough  food  for  the  Romans  of  the  republic  ;  but  at  a  later 
period,  when  the  people  became  more  refined  in  their  tastes,  they 
invented  a  barbarous  method  of  fattening  it.  By  depriving  them 
of  water,  movement,  and  light,  an  extraordinary  development  of 
the  liver  was  produced,  which  gave  them  a  particularly  savoury 
flavour.  This  invention — the  triumph  of  modern  gastronomy — 
dates  as  far  back  as  the  days  of  Augustus  and  Varro ;  indeed,  two 
persons  of  consular  dignity  disputed  the  honour  of  being  its 
originator. 

In  order  to  fatten  Geese  in  this  way,  an  abundant  supply  of 
food  is  administered,  at  the  same  time  depriving  them  of  light  and 
exercise.  This  food  consists  of  balls  made  up  of  maize  and  wheat, 
with  which  the  poor  creatures  are  crammed  three  times  a  day. 
In  some  countries  they  force  whole  grains  of  maize  down  their 
throats.  At  the  end  of  about  four  or  five  weeks  the  fattening 
process  is  perfect.  This  is  at  all  events  considered  to  be  the  case 
when  the  wretched  Palmipede  exhibits  signs  of  suffocation.  This 
is  certainly  a  cruel  method  of  feeding ;  nevertheless,  it  is  only 
by  this  plan  that  the  delicious  fat  and  plump  livers  so  much 
appreciated  by  epicures  can  be  obtained.  The  liver  undergoes  an 
alteration  which  in  the  end  must  prove  fatal  to  the  bird  ;  in  fact, 
it  assumes  enormous  development ;  and  the  epicures,  who  hold  it 
in  such  high  favour,  regard  as  a  dainty  this  diseased  liver  ! 

The  introduction  of  the  Turkey  has  led  to  the  culture  of  the 
Goose  being  more  neglected  in  Europe ;  nevertheless,  the  latter 
bird  is  a  source  of  prosperity  at  the  present  day  in  many  parts 
of  France,  and  in  many  a  rural  district  in  England.  In 


268  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

ancient  times  there  was  no  entertainment  or  family  festival 
without  the  traditional  Goose  smoking  on  the  board.  In  England 
the  Goose  is  still  considered  a  festival  bird.  A  custom  intimately 
associated  with  their  national  history  still  dictates  that  every  true 
Englishman  should  partake  of  Goose  on  Michaelmas  Day. 

The  flesh,  and  especially  the  fat  of  the  Goose,  keeps  perfectly  when 
salted  down.  In  parts  of  the  world,  in  this  state  it  is  much  employed 
for  culinary  purposes.  The  enormous  succulent  livers  which  are 
found  in  these  precious  birds  after  their  forcible  fattening  are  used 
to  make  the  delicious  Strasbourg  pies.  Those  of  Nerae,  as  well  as 
those  of  Toulouse,  are  made  more  of  Ducks'  livers,  for  the  latter 
birds  can  be  fattened  in  very  nearly  the  same  way  as  the  Goose. 

The  down  and  feathers  of  Geese  are  objects  of  considerable 
trade.  Before  the  invention  of  steel  pens,  the  only  implement 
that  was  used  for  writing  was  the  quill  plucked  from  the 
wing  of  the  Goose.  Great  care  was  necessary  in  dressing  them. 
This  was  done  by  passing  the  barrel  of  the  quill  through  hot 
ashes,  or  plunging  it  into  boiling  water,  with  other  clarifying 
processes. 

From  under  the  neck,  the  wings,  and  the  breast  of  the  birds, 
the  down  is  taken.  This  operation  takes  place  every  two  months, 
from  March  until  autumn. 

Geese  are  certainly  not  so  stupid  as  they  are  usually  said  to  be. 
The  following  facts  will  perhaps  enable  us  to  appreciate  the  moral 
qualities  which  distinguish  them  : — 

In  Scotland  a  Goose  became  so  attached  to  its  master,  that  it 
followed  him  about  everywhere,  just  like  a  dog.  One  day  this 
gentleman,  after  mixing  with  the  crowd  which  was  moving  about 
the  town  he  resided  in,  went  into  a  barber's  shop  to  get  shaved. 
The  faithful  bird  had  followed  him,  and  waited  at  the  door  until 
his  master  came  out,  in  order  to  attend  him  in  his  subsequent 
movements,  and  then  accompanied  him  back  to  his  home.  This 
intelligent  creature  could  recognise  its  master's  voice,  although 
clothed  in  any  disguise. 

In  Germany  a  Gander  was  in  the  habit  of  leading  an  old  blind 
woman  to  church  every  Sunday.  It  guided  her  by  the  skirt  of  her 
dress,  always  conducting  her  to  the  seat  in  the  church  which  she 
usually  occupied.  Afterwards  it  returned  into  the  churchyard  to 


THE  WHITE-FACED  BEBNICLE  GOOSE.  269 

browse  upon  the  grass.  When  the  service  was  over,  it  waited,  just 
like  a  faithful  dog,  to  take  charge  of  its  mistress.  One  day,  when 
the  minister  called  upon  her  and  found  her  from  home,  he 
expressed  his  astonishment  that  the  poor  blind  woman  should 
venture  out  alone.  "Ah,  sir,"  replied  her  daughter,  "we  have 
no  fears  about  her — the  Gander  is  with  her."  Our  blind  people 
would  make  their  fortune  if  they  could  replace  their  traditional 
dog  by  a  guide  of  this  novel  kind. 

The  Bernicle,  or  Tree  Geese,  are  so  called  from  a  foolish  tradition 
of  the  Middle  Ages  of  their  being  produced  from  the  barnacle  shell 
which  attaches  itself  to  ships'  bottoms  and  timber  floating  in  the 
sea.  They  differ  from  the  true  Geese  in  having  the  head  smaller, 
the  bill  shorter  and  more  conical,  the  breast-feathers  much  larger, 
and  in  the  predominance  of  black  in  their  plumage,  bills,  and  feet. 
The  plumage  is  full,  very  soft,  and  close.  There  are  several  species 
of  Bemicla,  which  some  recent  writers  have  formed  into  a  genus 
under  that  somewhat  inappropriate  name,  the  best-known  species 
being  the  White-faced  or  Bernicle  Goose,  Anser  leucopsis,  Tem- 
minck,  and  the  Black- faced  or  Brent  Goose,  Anser  bernicla,  of  the 
same  author. 

THE  WHITE-FRONTED  BERNICLE  GOOSE. 

ENGLISH   SYNONYMS. — Bernicle    Goose:    Selby,   Montagu.      White-faced 

Bernicle  Goose :   McGiUivray.     Common  Bernicle  :  Jenyns.     Clukis  : 

Selby. 
LATIN    SYNONYMS. — Anas   lernida  :    Linn.      Anas  erythropus  :     Latham. 

Anser  leucopsis :  Temminck,  Jenyns.     Anser  bernicla :  Selby.     Bernicla 

leucopsis :  Bonaparte,  McGillivray. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Oie  lernache. 

In  its  winter  plumage  this  is  a  beautiful  Goose,  much  smaller 
than  those  just  described,  but  with  a  full  body,  long  neck,  and  a 
small,  oblong,  and  compressed  head,  with  soft  glossy  plumage  well 
blended  on  the  head,  neck,  and  breast.  It  occurs  in  considerable 
flocks  in  the  Outer  Hebrides,  where  it  arrives  in  October,  and 
remains  till  April.  A  large  flock  of  these  birds  sitting  lightly  on 
the  water,  advancing  with  elevated  necks,  presents  a  very  beautiful 
spectacle.  JSTor  are  they  less  handsome  on  the  wing  as  they  shoot 
through  the  air,  now  arranged  in  long  undulating  ranks,  at  one 
time  extending  in  the  direct  line  of  their  flight,  at  another  flying 


270 


DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 


obliquely,  or  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  again  mingling  altogether 
under  some  unexplained  impulse.  Their  voice,  as  it  proceeds  from 
a  large  flock  at  some  distance  off,  is  clear  and  shrill,  producing  a 
pleasant  harmony. 

The  Brent  Goose,  or  Black-faced  Bernicle,  is  much  smaller  than 
the  Anser  leucopsis,  and  easily  distinguished  from  it  by  the  face 
and  head  being  entirely  black.  They  seem  to  have  visited  our 
shores  in  great  numbers  in  former  years.  In  the  years  1739-40 
these  birds  were  so  abundant  on  the  French  coast  that  the  people 
rose  en  masse  to  destroy  them,  and  so  numerous  on  the  Kentish 
coast  that  many  were  taken  in  a  starving  condition.  Mr. 


Fig.  98.— White-fronted  Bernicle  Goose  (Anser  erythropus). 

McGillivray  met  with  large  flocks  of  them  in  Cromarty  Bay, 
Beauley  Firth,  and  Montrose  Basin.  Mr.  Selby  observed  them  as 
constant  visitors  on  the  shallow  waters  between  Holy  Island  and 
the  mainland,  and  other  parts  of  the  coast. 

THE  SWAN  (Cygnus). 

The  Swan,  which  belongs  to  the  family  of  Lamellirostral  Pal- 
mipedes, has  been  an  object  of  admiration  in  all  ages  for  its 
noble  and  elegant  proportions,  the  graceful  curvature  of  its  neck, 
its  small  and  shapely  oval  head,  its  beak  so  prominent  at  the 
base,  the  gracefully-swelling  rotundity  of  its  body,  its  plumage 


THE  SWAN. 


271 


so  abundant  in  down,  and  its  colour  of  purest  white  of  the  species 
with  which  we  are  most  familiar,  and  is  the  finest  and  largest  of  all 
our  aquatic  birds.  On  the  water  it  is  a  picture  of  elegant  ease ;  it 
swims  apparently  without  effort,  and  with  great  rapidity  ;  on  the 
wing  it  rises  to  a  great  height,  but  on  shore  its  walk  is  slow  and 
cumbersome.  It  is  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ;  and  in 
Australia  the  Black  Swan,  for  ages  the  ram  avis  of  the  poets,  is 
very  abundant.  In  the  wild  state  it  lives  on  the  lakes,  rivers, 


Fig.  99.— Swans  (Cygnus  olor). 

and  sea-coasts  of  both  hemispheres,  feeding  on  such  seeds,  leaves, 
roots,  water-insects,  frogs,  and  worms  as  come  in  its  way.  In  its 
domestic  state  it  is  the  charm  and  ornament  of  our  lakes  and 
rivers  ;  but,  except  in  some  few  instances,  it  is  only  kept  for  show, 
being  jealous  and  cruel  in  disposition,  and  incapable  of  being 
tamed. 

The  ancients  thought  the  voice  of  the  Swan  musical  and  har- 
monious, and  its  gracefully- rounded  form  and  stately  neck  inspired 
many  poets,  who  have  described  it  as  the  bird  of  gods  and  god- 


272  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

desses.  The  poetical  imagination  of  the  Greeks,  in  short,  asso- 
ciated their  most  agreeahle  ideas  with  its  name.  It  was  one  of 
their  pleasing  fictions  that  in  dying  and  breathing  out  its  last  sigh, 
the  Swan  celebrated  its  death  by  a  melodious  song ;  or,  as  Eloy 
Johanneau  has  it — 

"  Le  Cygne,  a  la  fin  de  la  vie, 

Fait  entendre  un  touchant  accord, 
Et  d'une  voix  affaiblie 

Chante  lui-meme  en  mort." 

Buffon  himself  has  drawn  the  portraiture  of  this  bird  in  words 
more  poetical  than  true  : — "  The  Swan/'  he  says,  "  reigns  over  the 
water  by  every  claim  which  can  constitute  an  empire  of  peace, 
grandeur,  majesty,  and  kindness.  .  .  .  He  lives  more  in  the 
character  of  a  friend  than  a  monarch  amid  the  numerous  tribes  of 
aquatic  birds,  all  of  which  seem  willingly  to  place  themselves 
under  his  rule." 

The  great  naturalist  certainly  allowed  himself  to  be  led  away 
by  his  enthusiasm,  and  perhaps  by  his  classic  recollections ;  for 
the  Swan,  although  elegant  and  majestic  in  form,  and  graceful  in 
its  movements  on  the  water,  is  clumsy  and  awkward  when  on 
land ;  it  is,  besides,  spiteful  and  quarrelsome.  It  attacks  every 
animal,  and  even  man.  The  Swans  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Luxembourg  at  Paris  had  taken  an  aversion  to  all  the  keepers, 
and  whenever  they  saw  one,  they  all  came  out  of  the  water  in  order 
to  pick  a  quarrel  with  him. 

The  principal  strength  of  the  Swan  does  not  lie  in  its  beak,  but 
in  its  wings — a  most  effective  offensive  weapon,  of  which  it  takes 
every  advantage.  In  spite  of  its  bad  qualities,  however,  the  Swan  is 
the  most  ornamental  of  all  our  aquatic  birds.  Its  beak  is  flesh 
colour,  edged  with  black,  and  its  plumage  white  as  snow. 

Its  song,  or  rather  its  cry,  is  indeed  far  from  being  harmonious. 
It  is  a  dull  and  harsh  sibilation,  not  at  all  agreeable  to  listen  to. 
Some  of  the  poets,  however,  have  not  believed  the  fable  which 
attributes  to  these  birds  a  sonorous  and  melodious  voice.  Virgil 
perfectly  well  knew  how  hoarse  the  note  of  the  Swan  really 
was — 

"  Dant  sonitum  rauci  per  stagna  loquacia  cycni." 

Lucretius  also  says — 

"  Paryus  cycni  canor." 


THE  WHOOPING  SWAN.  273 


THE  WHOOPING  SWAN. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Whistling  Swan  :  Montagu,  Selby,  Jenyns.  Whoop- 
ing Swan  :  McGillivray.  Wild  Swan  :  Hooper,  Elk. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Anas  cygnus  ferus :  Linn.  Anas  vygnus  :  Latham, 
Temminck.  Cygnus  ferus :  Selby,  Jenyns.  Cygnus  musicus  :  Bonaparte, 
McGillivray. 

FRENCH  SYNONYMS. — Cygne  d  lee  jaune :  Temminck.  Cygne  sauvage 
of  authors. 

This  is,  in  all  probability,  the  Swan  so  celebrated  among  the 
ancients.  It  is  found  in  the  northern  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia  ; 
residing  in  summer  within  the  Arctic  circle,  and  migrating  south- 
wards and  visiting  Holland,  France,  and  the  British  Islands  in 
winter,  although  occasionally  breeding  in  the  north  of  Scotland. 
Southward,  it  extends  to  Barbary  and  Egypt ;  eastward,  it  wan- 
ders as  far  as  Japan.  The  note  of  the  Wild  Swan  is  a  sort 
of  whoop,  uttered  several  times  in  succession — a  hoarse,  hard,  and 
rather  discordant  cry — and  this  has  given  it  the  name  we  have 
adopted ;  for  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  the  grounds  on  which  the 
Prince  of  Canino  gave  it  the  name  of  Cygnus  musicus. 

The  peculiar  organic  distinction  of  the  Swan  is  the  great  length 
of  the  neck,  consisting  of  twenty- three  vertebrae,  and  the  cavity  in 
the  sternum  for  the  reception  of  the  trachea,  which  is  admirably 
described  by  Mr.  Yarrell  as  descending  the  passage  between  the  two 
branches  of  the  forked  bone  called  the  merrythought  to  a  level 
with  the  keel  of  the  breast-bone,  which  is  double,  and  receives  the 
tube  of  the  trachea  between  its  two  sides,  which  here  turns  upon 
itself  after  traversing  the  whole  length  of  the  keel,  and  passes 
upwards  and  forwards,  and  again  backwards,  till  it  ends  in  the 
vertical  bone  where  the  two  bronchial  tubes  go  off,  one  to  each 
lobe  of  the  lungs.  This  is  the  apparatus  through  which  the  cry 
is  produced,  which  is  variously  described  as  a  whistle,  a  whoop, 
or  a  song,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  writer.  They  fly  at  a 
great  height  when  on  a  migratory  journey,  and  in  a  wedge-like 
figure,  uttering  this  note  as  they  proceed,  and  when  heard  at  a 
distance  it  is  not  unmusical.  Mr.  McGillivray  listened  to  a  flock 
of  Wild  Swans  coming  in  from  the  Atlantic  after  a  gale :  their 

T 


274  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

clear,  loud,  and  trumpet-like  cries  delighted  him  as  they  sped 
their  way  in  lengthened  files  ;  but  they  were  too  far  off  for  him  to 
decide  whether  or  not  they  were  of  this  species. 

From  six  to  eight  eggs,  of  a  greenish  white,  the  female  lays, 
and  the  incubation  lasts  about  six  weeks.  The  cygnets  are  at  first 
covered  with  a  grey  down,  and  do  not  put  on  their  adult  plumage 
until  the  third  year.  Swans  care  but  little  for  concealing  their 
broods,  as  they  feel  confident  of  their  power  to  protect  them  against 
every  enemy.  They  will  fight  even  with  the  Eagle  itself,  harass- 
ing it  with  beak  and  wings,  until  the  marauder  is  glad  to  make 
a  more  or  less  honourable  retreat. 

In  the  protection  of  their  young  they  display  extraordinary 
courage.  On  one  occasion  a  female  Swan  was  sitting  on  the  bank 
of  a  river,  when  she  perceived  a  fox  swimming  towards  her  from 
the  opposite  bank.  Thinking  that  she  would  be  better  able  to 
defend  herself  in  her  natural  element,  she  took  to  the  water  and 
went  to  meet  the  enemy  which  was  threatening  her  brood.  She 
soon  reached  him,  and,  springing  upon  him  with  much  fury,  gave 
him  such  a  violent  blow  with  her  wing  that  the  fox  was  disabled, 
and  consequently  drowned. 

The  male  Swan  is  equally  with  the  female  attentive  to  the 
young  brood,  and  watches  them  with  a  rare  devotion.  He  carries 
them  about  on  his  back,  takes  them  under  his  wings  to  warm 
them,  and  never  abandons  them  while  they  are  still  young.  It 
is  a  beautiful  sight  to  see  him  gliding  over  the  water  at  the  head 
of  his  young  flock,  looking  far  ahead  with  an  inquisitive  eye,  and 
prepared  to  sweep  away  any  opposing  obstacle  ;  whilst  the  mother 
keeps  some  distance  behind,  ready  to  protect  the  rear.  How 
much,  too,  are  they  to  be  admired  as  they  sail  majestically  over 
the  surface  of  some  solitary  lake !  If  you  hide  yourself  behind 
the  thick  reeds  so  that  they  have  no  suspicion  of  your  presence, 
you  may  see  these  noble  birds  bending  their  necks  into  the 
most  graceful  curves,  plunging  their  heads  into  the  water, catching 
it  up  in  their  bills,  and  scattering  it  behind  them,  the  drops  fall- 
ing round  their  bodies  in  glittering  rain;  or  when,  beating  the 
water  with  powerful  wing,  stirring  up  a  foamy  wave,  you  may 
behold  them  all  on  a  sudden,  they  will  briskly  spring  up  and 
glide  majestically  over  the  surface  of  the  water,  cleaving  it 


THE  WHOOPING  SWAN.  275 

before  them  with,  their  graceful  bodies  as  the  ploughman  opens  a 
furrow  in  the  ground  with  his  ploughshare. 

Sometimes,  however,  these  elegant  birds  engage  in  terrible 
combats  with  one  another,  which  often  lead  to  the  death  of  one  of 
the  contestants.  The  Domestic  Swan,  a  more  civilised  and  well- 
informed  bird,  does  not  push  matters  quite  so  far ;  but  Wild 
Swans,  which  live  in  the  regions  of  the  North — in  the  lakes  of 
Iceland  and  Lapland — hold  sanguinary  tournaments  in  honour  of 
their  fair  ones.  A  combat  between  two  Swans  is*a  duel  to  the  death, 
in  which  both  adversaries  display  not  only  unequalled  strength  and 
fury,  but  also  considerable  skill  and  perseverance.  The  strife  will 
sometimes  last  several  days,  and  does  not  terminate  until  one  of 
the  foes  has  succeeded  in  twisting  his  neck  round  that  of  his 
enemy,  and  has  been  able  to  hold  him  down  under  water  long 
enough  to  drown  him. 

But  let  us  turn  from  this  warlike  spectacle  and  admire  the  Swan 
at  the  moment  when,  impelled  by  the  stimulus  of  love,  it  dis- 
plays all  the  graces  with  which  nature  has  endowed  it.  Their 
long  and  supple  necks  entwine  with  one  another  like  garlands  of 
snow,  their  plumage  swells  up  with  gentle  undulations,  and  they 
display  all  the  splendour  of  their  beauty. 

The  Swan  is  certainly  conscious  of  its  good  looks  and  grace,  for 
it  is  constantly  busying  itself  either  in  cleansing  or  polishing  its 
feathers.  Besides,  it  unites  the  useful  and  the  ornamental,  by 
extirpating  the  weeds  which  stagnate  at  the  bottom,  and  by 
thus  transforming  what  would  be  a  nasty  pool  into  a  clear  sheet 
of  water. 

These  birds  do  not  afford  good  sport  with  the  gun,  being  unap- 
proachable. In  Iceland  and  Kamtschatka,  Swan-hunting  takes 
place  during  the  season  of  moulting,  because  the  birds  are  then 
unable  to  fly.  Dogs  trained  to  this  sport  chase  and  run  them 
down ;  the  birds,  being  soon  worn  out  with  fatigue,  are  easily 
killed  with  sticks. 

The  Russians  have  another  mode  of  killing  Swans.  When  the 
snows  melt,  they  allure  them  by  means  of  stuffed  Geese  and  Ducks. 
The  Swans  dart  furiously  on  these  decoys.  The  sportsmen,  hidden 
in  a  hut  constructed  of  branches  of  trees  and  heaps  of  snow,  at 
short  range  easily  shoot  them. 


276 


DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 


The  flesh  of  the  Swan  is  very  indifferent  in  flavour.  Our  fore- 
fathers ate  it,  but  merely  from  ostentation,  for  it  was  only  served 
up  on  the  tables  of  the  greatest  nobles.  At  the  present  day,  the 
city  of  Norwich  has  a  preserve  for  Swans,  which  are  only  eaten  at 
the  municipal  feasts,  or  sent  as  presents  to  distinguished  indi- 
viduals. In  these  cases,  the  birds  being  young  and  tenderly  fed, 
are  by  no  means,  if  properly  cooked,  a  dish  to  be  despised.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  frozen  regions  of  the  extreme  north,  even  with 
their  imperfect  system  of  cuisine,  do  not  entirely  disdain  it ;  but 
the  cause  for  this  is  apparently  something  analogous  to  the  philo- 
sophical saying,  "  as  there  are  no  thrushes,  we  eat  blackbirds." 

The  river  Thames  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  Swans  which 
live  on  it.  The  greater  quantity  of  them  belong  to  the  Queen ;  the 


Fig.  100.— Black  Swans  (Cygnus  atrutus). 

others  chiefly  to  the  Vintners'  and  Dyers'  Companies  of  the  City  01 
London ;  but  we  never  heard  that  these  feast  their  guests  on 
the  noble  birds.  Deputations  from  the  companies  make  an 
annual  visit  to  their  preserves,  called  Swan-hopping,  or  capering 
— that  is,  catching  the  cygnets,  and  marking  them  in  the  presence 
of  the  royal  swanherd  with  the  distinguishing  brand  of  the  society 
to  whom  the  parent  bird  belonged. 

Two  species  of  Swans  were  recognised  by  Linnasus ;  but  later 


THE  FRIGATE  BIED.  277 

naturalists,  and  notably  the  Prince  of  Canino,  record  four  species 
known  in  Europe — namely,  Cygnusolor,  C.immutabilis,  C.musicus, 
and  C.  Bewickii — besides  the  American  species,  namely,  C.  ame- 
ricanus  and  C.  buccinator.  There  is  another  species,  peculiar  to 
Australia,  which  is  entirely  black :  efforts  have  been  made  suc- 
cessfully to  naturalise  it  in  Europe. 

THE  BLACK  SWAN  (Cygnus  atratus). 
SYNONYMS. — Anas  Plutonia :  Shaw.  Chenopis  :  Wagler. 
We  here  give  a  representation  (Fig.  100)  of  the  Black  Swan 
of  Australia.  This  bird,  which  has  now  become  so  common 
in  our  ornamental  waters,  in  some  respects  resembles  the  White 
species ;  it  is  all  black,  except  a  few  of  the  secondary  feathers, 
which  are  white.  In  a  state  of  nature,  the  Black  Swans  are  gene- 
rally seen  in  flocks  of  eight  or  nine  floating  on  lakes.  When 
disturbed,  they  fly  in  single  file,  and  are  so  shy  that  it  is  very 
dim  cult  to  get  within  gunshot  when  in  captivity.  Their  note  is 
jess  harsh  than  that  of  the  Whooping  Swan. 

THE  FRIGATE  BIRD  (Fregata,  Ray). 
ENGLISH  SYNONYM. — Man-of-war  Bird :  Sloane. 
LATIN  SYNONYM. — Tachypetes  :  Vieillot. 

The  Frigate  Bird  is  principally  characterised  by  a  strong, 
robust,  trenchant  bill,  longer  than  the  head,  with  mandibles 
hooked  at  the  point ;  nostrils  linear ;  orbits  naked ;  throat  dilat- 
able ;  the  front  of  the  neck  bare  of  feathers  ;  wings  very  long 
and  narrow,  first  two  feathers  longest ;  tail  lengthy  and  forked ; 
feet  short ;  toes  united  by  a  membrane  deeply  notched. 

The  Frigate  Bird  spreads  its  wings  to  the  extent  of  three  yards  ; 
its  power  of  flight  is,  therefore,  very  great.  It  inhabits  the 
tropical  seas  of  both  the  Old  and  New  World,  and  navigators 
assure  us  that  they  have  met  with  it  two  or  three  hundred 
leagues  from  any  shore.  When  a  hurricane  arises  they  mount 
up  far  above  the  storm,  and  remain  in  these  empyrean  regions 
until  it  is  again  fine  weather.  In  consequence  of  their  immense 
expansion  of  wing,  they  can  sustain  themselves  in  the  air  for  days 
together  without  taking  or  requiring  rest. 


278  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

Their  sight  is  so  piercing  that,  at  a  distance  far  beyond  that 
which  would  render  them  invisible  to  us,  they  can  perceive  the 
flights  of  Exocceti,  or  Flying  Fish.  From  their  elevated  situa- 
tion, they  dart  down  upon  their  winged  prey,  which  has  relin- 
quished its  native  element ;  and,  keeping  their  neck  and  feet  in 
a  horizontal  position,  and  thus  grazing  the  waves,  they  grasp 
their  victim,  which  little  expected  to  meet  with  an  enemy  in  the 
element  which  it  sought  for  safety.  It  is  no  unusual  thing  for  it 
to  rob  the  Gannet  of  the  fish  which  it  has  just  caught :  the  unfor- 
tunate bird  thus  acts  as  purveyor  to  this  sea-robber. 

The  Frigate  Bird  is  of  such  a  combative  temperament,  and  has 
such  an  unbounded  confidence  in  its  strength,  that  it  is  not  afraid 
to  defy  even  man.  It  has  been  known  to  dash  at  a  sailor,  and  to 
snatch  at  the  fish  which  he  held  in  his  hand.  M.  de  Kerhoent, 
a  French  navigator,  relates  that,  during  a  residence  at  the  Island 
of  Ascension,  a  perfect  cloud  of  Frigate  Birds  surrounded  his 
crew.  They  hovered  about,  a  few  feet  above  the  coppers  of  the 
open-air  kitchen,  in  order  to  carry  off  the  meat,  without  being 
intimidated  in  the  least  by  the  presence  of  his  followers.  Some  of 
them  approached  so  near  that  M.  de  Kerhoent  knocked  down 
one  of  the  impudent  intruders  with  a  blow  of  his  stick. 

When  these  birds  have  thoroughly  feasted  on  fish,  or  any  other 
of  the  marine  creatures  which  constitute  their  food,  they  take 
flight  landwards,  and  proceed  to  perch  upon  a  tree,  in  order  to 
digest  their  food  in  peace. 

They  assemble  in  large  flocks  on  the  islands  where  they  are 
accustomed  to  breed.  In  the  month  of  May  they  begin  to  repair 
their  old,  or  construct  new  nests.  They  pluck  off  small  dry  branches 
with  their  beaks,  and  with  these  pieces  of  stick  crossed  and  re- 
crossed  a  foundation  is  formed.  These  nests  are  suspended  from 
trees  which  hang  over  the  water,  or  are  placed  on  rocks  in  desert 
islands,  overhanging  the  sea ;  in  them  they  lay  two  or  three 
eggs,  said  to  be  of  a  carnation  colour  dotted  with  crimson. 

These  birds  are  common  in  the  Brazils,  in  the  Island  of  Ascen- 
sion, at  Timor,  the  Ladrone  Islands,  and  the  Moluccas :  in  fact, 
they  are  to  be  found  in  most  tropical  countries.  Navigators,  struck 
with  the  lightness  of  their  flight  and  their  slender  shape,  have  given 
them  the  name  they  bear,  thus  comparing  them  with  the  fleetest 


THE  TEOPIC  BIRD.  279 

and  most  elegant  of  men-of-war.  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  who  saw 
numbers  of  them  at  Jamaica,  describes  them  under  the  name  of 
Man-of-War  Birds.  "They  fly,"  he  says,  "like  Kites,  look 
black,  are  very  large-winged  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and 
they  fight  with  Sea  Gulls  for  their  prey."  They  are  eminently 
raptorial.  Ray  speaks  of  their  eagle  eye,  vulturine  claws,  and 
cat-like  gliding  movements,  their  immense  extent  of  wing,  and 
their  dashing  swoop. 

The  Palmipede  we  are  about  to  notice  received  from  Linnaeus 
the  mythological  name  of  Phaeton,  in  allusion  to  the  son  of  Apollo 
and  Clymene,  who  is  said  to  have  made  an  audacious  attempt  to 
drive  the  chariot  of  the  Sun. 

PELICANS. 

The  Pelicanid<%,  which  Mr.  Gray  makes  his  sixth  and  last  family 
of  Palmipedes,  includes  Cuvier's  Totipalmes,  or  birds  having  the 
hind-toe  united  to  the  others  by  a  single  membrane.  This  extensive 
family  comprehends  the  Tropic  Birds  (Phaeton),  the  Anhingas 
(P lotus),  the  Boobies  (Sula),  the  Cormorants  (Phalacrocorax),  and 
the  Pelicans  (Pelicanus). 

The  group  comprehends  those  birds  which  have  the  base  of  the 
bill  denuded  of  feathers,  the  nostrils  mere  slots,  in  which  the  opening 
is  scarcely  perceptible ;  the  skin  of  the  throat  more  or  less  capable 
of  distension  ;  the  tongue  small.  Some  of  the  group  are  large  and 
heavy  birds,  but  they  are  all  gifted  with  powerful  wings ;  they 
are,  at  the  same  time,  good  swimmers. 

THE  TROPIC  BIRD  (Phaeton). 

SYNONYMS. — Lepturus:  Moehr.  TropicolipTius :  Leach.  Tropic  Bird:  Sloane,. 
Catesby,  and  others. 

These  birds  are  well  known  to  navigators  as  the  harbingers 
which  foretell  the  approach  to  the  Tropics.  They  are  distinguished 
by  two  long,  slender  tail-feathers,  whence  their  French  name  of 
Paille-en- Queue.  They  are  gifted  with  great  length  of  wing, 
which,  with  their  feeble  feet,  proclaims  them  formed  especially 
for  flight.  They  are  accordingly  swift  and  untiring  on  the  wing, 
h  eedlessly  going  far  out  to  sea ;  forming,  as  Lesson  remarks,  a 


280  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

well-defined  and  purely  geographical  group,  their  homes  being 
in  rocky  islands,  to  which  they  usually  return  every  night. 
Nevertheless,  he  frequently  met  with  them  in  sea- tracks  far  from 
any  land,  possibly  they  having  been  swept,  by  the  sudden  squalls 
and  hurricanes  so  frequent  in  equatorial  seas,  beyond  their  natural 
limits. 

The  Common  Tropic  Bird,  Phaeton  cetkereus,  seems  to  confine 
itself,  according  to  this  writer,  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  stopping  on 
the  confines  of  the  Indian  Ocean ;  the  other  species,  Phaeton 
PhoenicuruS)  seeming  to  belong  further  eastward,  both  meeting 
in  nearly  equal  numbers  at  the  Mauritius  and  other  islands  of 
the  same  group.  Their  flight  is  described  as  calm,  quiet,  and 


Fig.  101.— Tropic  Bird  (Phaeton  atthereus,  Linn.). 

composed  of  frequent  strokes  of  the  wing,  interrupted  by  sudden 
falls.  The  bird  is  about  the  size  of  a  Partridge,  with  red  bill 
and  markings  under  the  lower  mandible  ;  in  general  appearance  it 
resembles  the  Gulls,  but  has  longer  and  more  powerful  wings ;  the 
legs  and  feet  are  vermilion  red,  the  latter  webbed ;  the  tail  has 
two  long,  narrow  feathers.  One  of  their  breeding-places  is  the 
Bermudas,  where  the  high  rocks  which  surround  the  island  are 
a  protection  from  the  attacks  of  the  fowler.  P.  Phcenicurus  is  a 
larger  bird,  being  thirteen  inches  from  the  bill  to  the  root  of  the 
tail;  the  long  tail-feathers  being  red  of  the  deepest  hue. 


THE  DARTER.  281 

The  appearance  of  this  bird  announces,  as  we  have  said,  that 
the  navigators  have  entered  the  torrid  zone,  as  this  bird  rarely 
goes  beyond  the  limits  of  this  region.  It  sometimes,  however, 
pushes  out  to  sea  to  a  distance  of  a  hundred  leagues.  When  they 
are  fatigued,  aided  by  their  large  webbed  feet,  they  rest  upon  the 
waves.  Like  many  other  ocean  birds,  their  peculiar  organisation 
prevents  them  settling  from  choice  on  the  ground.  They  are, 
therefore,  compelled  to  skim  continually  over  the  water,  in  which 
they  feed  upon  the  fish  and  mollusks,  which  form  their  principal 
food.  When  they  are  on  the  shore,  the  immense  spread  of  their 
wings  induces  them  to  choose  some  elevated  spot  for  a  perch,  such 
as  the  top  of  a  tree  or  the  summit  of  a  rock.  Worn  out  by 
fatigue,  if  they  settle  on  the  water,  they  are  forced  to  wait  until 
they  are  lifted  up  on  the  crest  of  a  wave  before  they  can  again 
take  flight.  Their  mode  of  flying  is  rather  curious,  for  they  com- 
municate to  their  wings  a  kind  of  quivering  motion,  as  if  overcome 
by  exhaustion. 

These  birds  seek  some  remote  and  solitary  islet  for  the  purpose 
of  breeding.  They  build  their  nests  in  holes  in  lofty  trees,  or  in 
the  clefts  of  rocks,  but  always  in  some  position  difficult  of  access. 
They  lay  two  or  three  eggs.  The  young  ones,  when  just  hatched, 
owing  to  their  dazzling- coloured  down,  bear  a  considerable 
resemblance  to  powder-puffs. 

There  are  three  species  of  the  Phaeton — the  Red- tailed  Phaeton 
(Phaeton  Phcenicurus),  with  white  plumage,  shaded  with  a  light 
rose-coloured  tint,  having  the  two  long  feathers  of  the  tail  of  a 
red  hue.  It  inhabits  the  seas  of  India  and  Africa,  Madagascar, 
the  Isle  of  France,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  White-tailed 
Phaeton  {Phaeton  aether eus),  with  white  plumage,  with  the  two 
long  feathers  in  the  tail  white.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  Yellow-beaked  Phaeton  (Phaeton  Jlavirostris)  is  distinguished 
by  the  colour  of  its  beak.  It  is  a  native  of  the  islands  of  Bourbon 
and  Mauritius. 


THE  DARTER  (Anhinga). 

jinn.,    Klein,    Scopoli.       AT 
tarter  of  English  and  Americj 

The  Darter  (Fig.  102)  has  a  straight  and  pointed  bill,  with 


SYNONYMS. — Plotus :    Linn.,    Klein,    Scopoli.       Anhinga:  Brisson,    Tein- 
minck.     Darter  of  English  and  American  writers. 


282 


DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 


indentations  at  the  point,  turned  in  a  backward  direction.  Its 
head  is  slender  and  cylindrical,  and  forms  the  termination  of  a 
slim  and  excessively  long  neck,  which  gives  it  much  the  resem- 
blance of  a  serpent  grafted  on  a  bird.  In  all  its  movements  this 
neck  is  the  counterpart  of  the  reptile,  and  imitates  its  undula- 
tions ;  therefore,  in  the  United  States  it  has  received  the  name  of 
the  "  Serpent-Bird/'  They  are  untiring  swimmers  and  excellent 
divers.  When  any  danger  threatens  them,  they  dive  completely 
under  water,  and  do  not  reappear  until  they  have  found  some 
tufts  of  reeds  in  which  to  hide,  even  should  the  distance  be  as 


Fig.  102.— Darter  (Anhinga,  Levaillant). 

much  as  one  thousand  feet  from  the  spot  where  it  disappeared. 
These  birds  are  of  a  wild  and  suspicious  nature,  confining  them- 
selves to  solitary  places.  They  perch  upon  trees  which  grow  by 
the  sides  of  a  pool  or  river,  in  order  to  dart  upon  any  unfortunate 
fish  which  comes  within  their  reach,  which  they  seize  with  ex- 
traordinary address,  swallowing  it  whole  if  not  too  large.  If 


THE  GANNET.  283 

they  cannot  manage  this,  they  carry  it  to  a  rock,  where  they  dis- 
member it  with  their  beak  and  claws. 

The  Anhinga  builds  its  nest  on  the  topmost  branches  of  trees, 
constructing  it  of  dried  twigs  and  reeds,  and  lining  it  inside  with 
a  thick  layer  of  down. 

Only  two  species  of  the  Anhinga  are  known :  the  Anhinga 
(Plotus)  Levaillantii,  a  native  of  Africa,  the  plumage  of  which  is 
black  from  the  breast  to  the  tail ;  and  the  Black-bellied  Darter 
(Plotus  melanogaster],  an  American  species. 

Levaillant,  in  his  usual  lively  manner,  relates  that  he  was 
induced  to  visit  a  rich  proprietor  in  the  Canton  of  the  Twenty-four 
Rivers  by  a  tempting  description  he  received  of  two  extraordinary 
birds  which  haunted  the  vicinity.  They  frequented  a  particular 
tree,  and  baffled  him  more  than  once  by  their  skill ;  but  at  length 
he  got  within  shot,  and  killed  both  of  them  right  and  left.  He 
describes  them  as  diving  for  fish.  When  they  caught  a  small 
one  it  was  swallowed ;  when  a  large  one,  it  was  carried  to  a  rock 
or  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  when  the  bird,  fixing  it  beneath  its  feet, 
picked  it  to  pieces  with  its  bill.  Though  the  water  is  its  favourite 
element,  it  is  on  trees  and  rocks,  he  tells  us,  that  it  establishes  its 
nest  and  brings  up  its  young,  taking  care  to  place  the  nest  so  that 
the  young  may  be  precipitated  into  the  water  as  soon  as  they  are 
able  to  swim,  or  when  the  safety  of  the  family  requires  it. 

THE  GANNET  (Sula). 
SYNONYMS.— Solan  Goose,  Booby ;  Fou  de  Bassan  of  the  French. 

The  Gannet  is  a  massively-made  bird,  not  of  graceful  shape  ; 
it  is  larger  than  a  Duck,  and  has  white  plumage. 

They  have  obtained  the  name  of  "  Booby  "  from  the  supposed 
stupidity  which,  rightly  or  wrongly,  is  attributed  to  them ;  for  if 
a  man  finds  one  of  these  birds  standing  in  his  way,  the  creature 
offers  no  resistance,  but  will  allow  itself  to  be  killed  rather  than 
abandon  its  position.  The  Frigate  Bird,  with  audacious  rapacity, 
when  it  observes  the  Gannet  catch  a  fish,  swoops  down  upon  it 
and  compels  it  to  disgorge  its  prey.  Their  somewhat  imperfect 
organisation  explains  this  habit  of  non-resistance.  The  shortness 
of  their  legs  and  the  excessive  length  of  their  wings  prevent  them 


284 


DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 


escaping  from  their  enemies  when  on  shore,  nor  have  they  suffi- 
cient power  of  flight  to  avoid  them  in  the  air.  But  when 
they  are  aloft  they  soar  wonderfully,  with  their  necks  stretched 
out,  the  tail  expanded,  and  the  wings  almost  motionless.  Although 
they  are  strong  on  the  wing,  they  do  not  venture  very  far  from 
shore,  consequently  they  are  never  met  with  more  than  twenty 
leagues  at  sea.  Their  appearance,  therefore,  is  considered  by 


Fig.  103.-Gannet  (Sula  Bassari). 

the  mariner  as  an  indication  of  the  proximity  of  land.  In  their 
flight  they  frequently  skim  over  the  surface  of  the  sea,  catching 
such  fish  as  swim  near  the  top.  The  skin  of  their  throat 
is  so  readily  distended  that  they  can  swallow  their  prey  whole. 
The  Gannet  is  also  an  excellent  diver,  for  it  is  able  to  remain 
more  than  a  minute  under  water  when  in  pursuit  of  a  favourite 
prey. 

These  birds  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  globe,  giving  the 
preference,  however,  to  tropical  countries ;  still  they  are  plentiful 
in  the  Hebrides,  in  Norway,  Scotland,  and  are  even  found  as  far 


THE  CORMORANT.  285 

north  as  Kamtschatka  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  according  to 
Acerbi.  But  when  residents  of  high  latitudes,  they  migrate 
southward  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather.  In  the  winter 
season  they  frequent  the  coast  of  Cornwall,  and  are  found,  in 
fact,  in  every  part  of  the  British  and  Irish  Channel,  generally 
keeping  out  at  sea.  They  are  constant  attendants  on  the  large 
quantities  of  herrings  and  pilchards  that  frequent  our  coast  late 
in  autumn. 

This  bird  takes  its  prey  by  darting  down  on  it  with  great 
velocity ;  yet  it  does  not  appear  to  dive — swimming,  it  floats 
upon  the  water  with  the  buoyancy  of  a  gull,  not  submerged,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  Shag  and  Cormorant. 

Three  species  of  them  are  known  :  the  Solan  Goose,  or  Gannet 
(Sula  Hassan),  which  is  very  common  on  the  Bass  Rock,  a  small 
islet  in  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  on  the  northern  islands — this  is 
the  only  European  species;  the  Common  Gannet  (Sula  dactylatra), 
vulgarly  called  "  Mouche  de  Yelours  " — this  is  smaller  than  the 
preceding,  and  is  found  in  the  Island  of  Ascension ;  the  Brown 
Gannet  (Sulafusca),  which  inhabits  South  America. 

THE  CORMORANT  (Phalacrocorax). 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Cormorant:  Willoughby,  Albin,  Montagu.  Great 
Cormorant :  Bewick,  Tarrell.  Crested  Cormorant :  Bewick.  Cormorant : 
Shaw,  Latham,  Lewin,  Walcot,  Pultney.  Provincial :  Great  Black  Cor- 
vorant,  Cole  Goose,  Skart,  Green  Cormorant,  Norie. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Carlo  carboranus:  Meyer.  Pelicanus  carlo:  Linn., 
Latham,  Gwellin.  Corvus  aquaticus :  Ray,  Willoughby.  Phalacrocorax  : 
Brisson,  Temminck,  Cuvier,  Bonaparte.  Halicus :  Illiger.  Hydrocorax  : 
Vieillot. 

The  Cormorant  is  distinguished  by  a  bill  straight  and  com- 
pressed, the  upper  mandible  curving  downwards,  and  forming  a 
hook  at  the  termination  ;  lower  mandible  inserted  in  a  small  mem- 
brane extending  under  the  throat ;  feet  strong,  short ;  toes  three 
before  and  one  behind,  united  by  a  membrane  ;  nail  of  the  middle 
toe  serrated ;  wings  moderate,  the  first  quill  longer  than  the 
second,  the  whole  being  blackish ;  the  upper  part  of  the  back 
and  wings  ashy  brown,  or  bronzed  in  the  middle,  bordered  by 
a  large  band  of  glossy  greenish  black. 


286  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

The  Common  Cormorant  (Fig.  104)  has  a  massive  and  rather 
awkward  body,  feet  short  and  drawn  back  to  the  abdomen,  the 
head  flattened  and  small,  the  guttural  pouch  very  small.  Their 
bulk  varies,  according  to  the  species,  from  the  size  of  a  Goose  to 
that  of  a  Teal.  On  the  south  coast  of  England  they  are  large 
birds,  Pennant  having  weighed  one  which  exceeded  seven  pounds, 
and  measured  three  feet  four  inches.  Their  blackish  plumage  has 
given  the  idea  of  some  resemblance  existing  between  them  and  the 
Crow ;  hence  their  name,  "  Cormorant/'  from  Corvus  varans,  which 
signifies  a  voracious  Crow. 

These  birds  have  a  wide  geographical  distribution,  being  found 


Fig.  104.— Cormorant  (Plialacrocorax  carbo,  Gould). 

in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  always  on  the  sea-coast  or  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers.  They  are  excellent  swimmers  and  clever  divers, 
pursuing  with  extraordinary  rapidity  the  fish  on  which  they  feed. 
The  Cormorant  swallows  its  prey  head  first ;  and  if  it  happens 
to  catch  it  by  the  wrong  end,  it  will  throw  it  up  in  the  air,  and 
seize  it  again  in  its  bill  as  it  descends  in  the  proper  position. 
"When  it  has  caught  an  eel,  a  good  half-hour  sometimes  elapses 
before  it  can  succeed  in  swallowing  it.  It  may  be  seen  making  the 
most  violent  efforts  to  swallow  its  prey  ;  and  just  at  the  moment 
when  one  would  think  that  the  slippery  morsel  was  successfully 
absorbed,  the  fish  suddenly  reappears  again  from  the  depths  of 


THE  COEMOEANT.  287 

its  living  sepulchre,  still  struggling  to  escape  ;  the  Cormorant 
re-swallows  it  again ;  the  eel  still  resists,  and  increases  its  efforts 
to  escape  ;  worn  out  at  last  by  its  prolonged  and  useless  efforts,  the 
victim  is  finally  compelled  to  resign  itself  to  its  fate. 

The  appetite  of  the  Cormorant  is  insatiable.  The  havoc  which 
it  commits  in  rivers  is  very  great,  for  one  day's  consumption 
frequently  amounts  to  six  or  eight  pounds  of  fish  :  these  it  pursues 
principally  under  water,  for  it  is  an  expert  diver,  and  most  suc- 
cessful in  its  search  for  its  prey.  In  consequence  of  the  skill 
displayed  by  the  Cormorant  in  fishing,  and  the  ease  with  which 
it  is  tamed,  it  is  reared  in  a  semi-domestic  state  in  certain  parts 
of  Eastern  Asia.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  the  nations 
who  best  know  how  to  utilise  the  habits  of  these  birds.  When 
thus  used  a  ring  is  placed  round  their  necks  to  prevent  them 
swallowing  their  prey,  before  turning  them  loose  in  waters 
which  abound  with  the  finny  tribes.  The  Cormorants,  trained 
to  obey  their  master's  voice,  and  balked  in  their  attempts 
to  swallow  by  the  ring  round  the  neck,  bring  to  their  owner 
all  fish  they  capture.  Sir  George  Stanton,  in  his  embassy  to 
China,  having  reached  Len-tze,  famed  for  its  breed  of  these 
birds,  found  them  to  be  a  species  somewhat  resembling  the  Com- 
mon Cormorant,  described  by  Dr.  Shaw  as  a  Brown  Cormorant 
with  white  throat,  the  body  whitish  beneath,  spotted  with 
brown ;  the  tail  rounded ;  irides  blue,  and  bill  yellow ;  which  he 
named  Phalacrocorax  sinensis.  "On  a  large  lake,"  Sir  George 
says,  "  close  to  this  part  of  the  canal,  and  to  the  eastward 
of  it,  are  thousands  of  small  boats  and  rafts  built  entirely  for  this 
species  of  fishery.  On  each  boat  or  raft  are  ten  or  a  dozen  birds, 
which,  at  a  signal  from  the  owner,  plunge  into  the  water ;  and 
it  is  astonishing  to  see  the  enormous  size  of  fish  with  which 
they  return.  They  appeared  to  be  so  well  trained  that  it  did 
not  require  either  ring  or  cord  round  their  necks  to  prevent 
them  swallowing  their  prey,  except  when  they  received  the  per- 
mission of  their  master  to  do  so,  as  an  encouragement  for  their 
labours." 

The  dexterity  with  which  the  Cormorant  seizes  its  prey  is  such 
that  if  a  dead  fish  is  thrown  into  the  water  from  a  distance,  the  bird 
will  dive  immediately,  pursuing  its  course  in  a  direct  line  to  the 


288  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

spot,  never  failing  to  secure  it,  even  before  it  reaches  to  the 
bottom.  On  shore  the  Cormorant  is  a  dull,  heavy  bird,  and  it  is 
only  in  the  water,  and  especially  while  fishing,  that  it  appears  to 
advantage.  It  floats  so  low  in  the  water,  and  swims  and  dives 
so  quickly,  that  it  seldom  fails  to  capture  its  prey.  Now  on 
the  surface,  next  moment  below,  onward  it  plunges  as  if  making 
an  attack  ;  then  rising  suddenly  in  some  unexpected  spot  after  a 
lengthened  dive,  it  is  certain  to  have  the  unfortunate  fish  in 
its  bill. 

Another  peculiarity  which  belongs  to  this  species  is  common 
with  many  other  aquatic  birds — that  of  violently  beating  the  water 
with  its  wings  without  moving  from  the  spot,  followed  by  a  vigorous 
shaking  of  the  whole  body,  with  the  feathers  ruffled,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  covering  itself  with  water.  After  repeating  this 
several  times  with  small  intervals  of  rest,  it  will  retire  to  an 
elevated  place  on  shore,  where  it  will  remain  with  outspread  wings 
until  dry. 

The  flight  of  these  birds  is  rapid  and  lasting  ;  but  they  are  as 
heavy  and  awkward  when  on  land  as  they  are  nimble  and  active 
in  the  water.  Their  nature  being  unsuspicious  and  trustful,  they 
can  be  easily  approached,  particularly  when  resting  after  their 
fishing  exertions. 

The  Cormorant  is  widely  diffused  both  in  the  Old  and  New 
World.  It  is  a  migratory  bird,  but  is  seen  on  our  coast  at  all 
seasons.  It  breeds  among  rocks  on  the  coast,  selecting  crags  and 
inaccessible  places,  which  sometimes  are  covered  with  their  nests  : 
these  are  composed  of  sticks  and  sea- weed,  in  which  the  female 
deposits  her  eggs,  generally  three  in  number,  and  which  are  of  a 
whitish  colour,  weighing  about  two  ounces. 

In  Egypt  four  species  of  Cormorants  are  known.  The  Great 
Cormorant  ( Carbo  cormoranus)  is  the  size  of  a  Goose ;  this 
species  is  often  domesticated,  and  is  frequently  met  with  in  France. 


THE  GREEN  CORMORANT.  289 


THE  GREEN  CORMORANT,  OR  SHAG. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS.— Green  Cormorant:  McGillivray,  Morris,  Selby. 
Shag:  Montagu,  Willoughby,  McGillivray,  Latham,  Flemming.  Crested 
Cormorant :  Morris.  Crested  Shag  :  Montagu,  Selby,  Jenyns. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Pelicanus  graculus :  Linn.,  Latham,  Montagu,  Bewick. 
Phalacrocorax  graculus:  Cuvier,  Brisson,  Rennies,  Montagu,  McGilli- 
vray, Stephens,  Flemming.  Phalacrocorax  cristatus:  Meyer,  Temminck. 

FRENCH  SYNONYMS. — Cormoran  Larcup :  Temminck.  Petit  Cormoran,  or 
Nigaud :  Buffon.  Cormoran  Nigaud :  Figuier. 

LOCAL  SYNONYMS.— Black  Cormorant,  Crested  Cormorant,  Shag,  Scart, 
Scarer,  Green  Scout,  and  the  Booby  Cormorant. 

This  species  is  in  weight  about  four  pounds  ;  the  bill  is  dusky, 
and  about  four  inches  in  length  ;  a  bare  yellow  skin  is  situated 
along  the  sides  of  the  mouth  and  chin,  the  latter  speckled  with 
black.  The  whole  bird  appears  black  at  a  little  distance.,  but  on 
nearer  examination,  the  head,  neck,  breast,  and  rump  are  of  a 
glossy  green.  The  feathers  of  the  upper  part  of  the  back,  scapu- 
lars, and  wing  coverts  are  pointed,  and  beautifully  glossed  with 
purple,  violet,  and  green,  each  feather  being  edged  with  a  velvety 
black  ;  the  under  part  of  the  body  is  less  glossed  with  green ;  the 
legs  are  dusky  black  ;  middle  claw  serrated. 

The  female  weighs  over  three  pounds ;  the  upper  part  of  her 
body  is  dark,  not  so  densely  glossed  as  in  the  male  ;  but  the  margin 
of  the  feathers  of  the  scapulars  and  wing  coverts  is  black,  the 
under  part  dusky,  with  a  mixture  of  grey. 

Such  is  Colonel  Montagu's  description  of  a  pair  shot  from  the 
nest,  but  they  vary  in  plumage  and  colour.  In  habit  the  Shag 
is  strictly  a  salt-water  bird,  never  visiting  fresh  water,  breed- 
ing on  our  rocky  coasts,  where  it  builds  a  nest  of  stick  and  sea- 
weed. They  resort  to  the  maritime  caves  of  the  Hebrides  in  such 
vast  numbers  that  they  literally  cover  the  sea  to  a  considerable 
extent  when  on  their  passage  from  the  caves  of  Liuir  and  Toehead  to 
their  fishing- grounds  in  the  sound.  Mr.  McGillivray  has  counted 
a  hundred  and  five  in  one  flock.  This  picture  Mr.  McGillivray 
makes  the  text  for  one  of  his  most  delightful  descriptions : — 

"  There  is  a  large  cave,"  he  says,  "  on  the  west  coast  of  Harris, 
celebrated  for  the  number  of  Shags  which  reside  on  it,  and  so  lofty 
that  a  boat  can  enter  it  to  a  considerable  distance  with  lowering  the 

u 


290  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

masts.  When  we  appear  off  the  mouth  of  the  cave  a  consider- 
able number  appear  conspicuously  perched  on  the  little  shelving 
rocks  and  projections,  their  dusky  figures  strongly  relieved  by  the 
whitened  surface  of  the  rocks.  Some  of  them  fly  overhead  as  we 
approach,  but  more  drop  into  the  water  like  a  stone.  On  looking 
down  we  see  them  rapidly  winding  their  way  under  the  boat, 
swimming  with  outspread  wings,  and  not  at  all  in  the  manner 
represented  by  some  writers,  who  say  that  it  propels  itself  entirely 
under  water  by  the  feet  and  tail.  Glancing  aloft,  we  see  many 
Black  Guillemots  in  the  clefts ;  and  above  them  is  the  eyrie  of 
the  White-tailed  Eagle.  But  our  business  is  with  the  Shags, 
which  are  now  seen  writhing  their  long  necks  as  they  gaze  upon 
us.  Presently  a  shot  is  fired,  and  another ;  the  dead  birds  drop 
on  the  water,  the  living  plunge  headlong  into  it,  many  advance 
on  the  wing,  but,  being  frightened  by  the  upraised  oars,  dart  into 
the  water. 

"  Advancing  a  little,  we  find  that  many  still  remain  on  the 
rocks ;  of  these  we  shoot  some  more.  Presently  some  of  those 
which  had  escaped  return,  and  perch ;  and  we  continue  shooting 
until  we  have  obtained  as  many  as  we  desire.  After  all  the 
uproar  we  have  created,  several  still  remain  standing  near  their 
nests,  loath  to  quit  them.  Although  most  of  the  nests  are  out  of 
reach,  some  are  accessible.  We  find  them  generally  bulky,  some- 
times very  scanty,  formed  of  fuci,  twigs,  heath,  and  grass  rudely 
put  together,  made  flat,  or  with  a  shallow  cavity,  containing  two, 
frequently  three,  sometimes  four  eggs,  never  more." 

This  bird  has  black  plumage,  as  we  have  seen,  is  smaller  than 
the  one  preceding,  and  inhabits  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions. 
A  bird  nearly  resembling  this  (Phalacrocorax  Desmarestii)  is 
described  by  Temminck  and  figured  by  Gould,  a  species  which 
has  been  observed  in  Corsica,  and  is  of  a  blackish  green.  Montagu 
satisfied  himself  that  the  Crested  Cormorant  was  only  a  seasonal 
variety  of  the  Common  Cormorant ;  and  probably  others  of  the 
species  described,  if  carefully  examined,  would  prove  to  be  the 
same.  McGillivray  is  of  opinion,  however,  if  Mr.  Gould's  figure 
is  correct,  the  species  must  be  distinct. 


THE  PELICAN.  291 


PELICANID^E. 

A  comprehensive  group  of  aquatic  birds  presenting  a  uniformity 
of  structure  quite  apparent  in  the  skeleton,  and  especially  in  the 
digestive  organs,  of  which  the  Pelican  is  the  type.  They  are 
mostly  birds  of  large  size,  but  of  slender,  elongated  body,  long 
neck,  and  head  generally  of  moderate  size.  The  bill  is  long,  some- 
times slender,  at  other  times  rather  stout  and  straight ;  the  upper 
mandible  with  the  ridge  separated  by  grooves,  and  terminated  in 
a  narrow,  decurved,  and  pointed  nail,  or  claw ;  the  lower  mandible 
elastic  and  extensible.  The  plumage  is  soft  and  blending,  on  the 
back  and  wings  compact  and  imbricated ;  wings  long,  tail  of 
moderate  length  and  narrow. 

The  habits  of  the  group  vary  considerably.  Cormorants  pursue 
their  prey  much  in  the  same  manner  as  Mergansers  and  Loons ; 
the  Anhingas  are  strictly  terrinatorial ;  the  Pelicans  combine  the 
habits  of  both.  The  Gannets  fly  about  in  quest  of  food,  plunging 
upon  it  from  on  high.  The  Frigate  Birds  range  over  the  seas  with 
unrivalled  power  of  flight,  and  the  Tropic  Birds  resemble  in  pro- 
gression the  Terns.  The  family  comprises — 

1.  Pelicans. 

2.  Cormorants. 

3.  Gannets. 

4.  Phaetons. 

5.  Anhingas. 

The  Pelican  (Fig.  105)  has  the  bill  long,  straight,  rather  broad, 
and  very  much  depressed ;  upper  mandible  flattened,  terminating 
in  a  hooked  tip  much  bent  and  compressed ;  lower  mandible  formed 
of  two  bony  branches  united  at  the  point,  from  which  a  mem- 
branous naked  skin  is  suspended,  forming  a  purse,  which  can  be 
distended  into  a  voluminous  bag.  The  Pelicans  are  large,  heavy 
aquatic  birds,  with  great  extent  of  wing,  and  are  excellent  swim- 
mers ;  their  haunts  are  estuaries,  the  sea-coast,  and  the  banks  of 
rivers,  lakes,  and  marshes.  In  its  habitat,  whenever  a  fish  betrays 
its  presence  by  leaping  or  flashing  its  glittering  scales  in  the 
sun,  the  Pelican  will  be  seen  sailing  towards  it. 

This  bird  has  an  appetite  so  insatiable,  and  a  stomach  so  capacious, 


292  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

that,  in  one  day's  fishing,  it  devours  as  much  fish  as  would  satisfy 
six  men.  The  Egyptians  have  nicknamed  it  the  "  River  Camel/' 
because  it  can  imbibe  at  once  more  than  twenty  pints  of  water. 
Certainly  it  only  makes  two  meals  a  day  ;  but,  oh  !  what  meals 
they  are ! 

Pelicans  often  travel  in  considerable  flocks,  visiting  the  mouths 
of  rivers  or  favourite  retreats  on  the  sea- coast.  When  they 
have  made  choice  of  a  suitable  place,  they  arrange  themselves 
in  a  wide  circle,  and  begin  to  beat  the  water  with  extended  wing, 


Fig.  105.— The  Crested  Pelican  (P.  onocrotalus,  var.  Orientalis,  Linn.). 

so  as  to  drive  the  fish  before  them,  gradually  diminishing  the  circle 
as  they  approach  the  shore  or  some  inlet  on  the  coast.  In  this 
manner  they  get  all  the  fish  together  into  a  small  space,  when  the 
common  feast  begins.  After  gorging  themselves  they  retire  to 
the  shore,  where  the  processes  of  digestion  follow.  Some  rest 
with  the  neck  over  the  back ;  others  busily  dress  and  smooth 
their  plumage,  waiting  patiently  until  returning  appetite  invites 
all  to  fresh  exertions.  When  thus  quiescent,  occasionally  one  of 
these  birds  empties  his  well-lined  pouch,  and  spreads  in  front  of 
him  all  the  fish  that  it  contains,  in  order  to  feed  upon  them  at 
leisure. 


THE  PELICAN.  293 

This  guttural  pouch,  which  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the 
Pelican's  life,  is  composed  of  two  skins,  the  outer  one  being  a 
prolongation  of  the  skin,  of  the  neck ;  the  inner  one  is  contiguous 
to  the  coating  of  the  oesophagus.  The  tongue  is  small :  a  delicate 
gizzard  forms  one  large  sac  with  the  other  stomachs. 

In  spite  of  its  great  size,  the  Pelican  flies  easily  and  to  con- 
siderable distances.  It  is  no  diver,  but  will  occasionally  dash 
down  on  fish  from  a  considerable  height,  and  with  such  velocity 
that  it  becomes  submerged ;  but  its  buoyancy  instantly  brings 
it  to  the  surface  again.  It  perches  on  trees,  but  seems  to  prefer 
rocks.  When  it  builds  a  nest,  it  is  generally  formed  of  coarse 
reedy  grass,  lined  with  softer  material,  placed  in  the  cleft  of  dry 
rocks  near  the  water.  Here  the  female  deposits  two,  three,  four, 
sometimes  five  white  eggs,  but  most  frequently  only  two.  They 
are  occasionally  satisfied  with  placing  their  eggs  in  an  indentation 
in  the  ground  which  they  have  roughly  lined  with  blades  of 
grass. 

After  an  incubation  lasting  from  forty  to  forty-five  days,  the 
young  ones,  covered  with  a  greyish  down,  are  hatched.  The  female 
feeds  them  :  she  presses  the  hooked  red  point  of  the  mandible  against 
her  breast,  which  causes  her  to  disgorge  the  fish  it  contains  into 
the  bills  of  the  young  ones,  the  male  performing  the  same  opera- 
tion on  himself  for  the  benefit  of  his  partner.  This  is  probably 
the  fact  that  has  given  origin  to  the  absurd  fable  that  the  female 
Pelican  is  in  the  habit  of  piercing  her  breast  in  order  to  nourish 
her  young  with  her  maternal  blood.  The  young  birds  are  easily 
tamed.  It  is  even  asserted  that  they  are  susceptible  of  education, 
and  that,  like  the  young  Cormorants,  they  can  be  taught  to  fish 
for  their  masters. 

The  Pelican  is  more  common  in  tropical  regions  than  in  tem- 
perate climates.  They  are  very  numerous  in  Africa,  Siam,  Mada- 
gascar, the  Sunda  Isles,  the  Philippines,  Manilla,  and  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere  they  abound  from  the  Antilles  to  the 
northern  temperate  part  of  the  South  American  continent.  The 
true  Pelicans  are  large  birds  with  powerful  wings,  and  are 
excellent  swimmers.  The  pouch  has  extraordinary  elasticity,  and 
is  capable  of  containing  a  number  of  fish  either  for  its  own  con- 
sumption or  the  nourishment  of  its  young.  It  haunts  the 


294  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

neighbourhood  of  rivers  and  lakes  and  the  sea-coast,  being  rarely 
seen  more  than  twenty  leagues  from  the  land.  Levaillant 
describes  one  of  those  wonderful  ornithological  scenes  which  only 
occur  in  uninhabited  regions.  At  the  entrance  of  Saldanha  Bay, 
on  the  south-west  coast  of  Africa,  after  wading  through  the  surf 
and  clambering  up  the  rocks,  "  all  of  a  sudden  there  arose  from 
the  surface  of  the  Island  of  Dassen-Eyland  an  impenetrable 
cloud,  which  formed,  at  the  distance  of  forty  feet  above  our  heads, 
an  immense  canopy,  composed  of  birds  of  almost  every  kind  of 
water-fowl — Cormorants,  Sea  Gulls,  Sea  Swallows,  Pelicans,  and  I 
believe  the  whole  winged  tribes  of  this  part  of  Africa  were  here 
assembled.  Their  voices,  harsh  and  discordant,  formed  a  noise 
so  unmusical  that  I  was  every  moment  compelled  to  cover  my 
head  in  order  to  relieve  my  ears.  The  alarm  we  created  was  so 
much  the  more  general,  inasmuch  as  the  birds  disturbed  were 
chiefly  sitting  females.  They  had  nests,  eggs,  and  young  to 
defend."  In  this  scene  the  Pelican,  from  its  peculiar  appearance, 
was  of  course  a  prominent  object.  The  best-known  species  are — 
1,  the  White  Pelican;  2,  the  Crested  Pelican;  3,  the  Brown 
Pelican  ;  and  4,  the  Spectacled  Pelican. 

THE  WHITE  PELICAN. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYM.— White  Pelican. 

LATIN    SYNONYMS. — Pelicanus    onocrotalus :     Linn.,     Temminck,     Selby. 
P.  minor :  Ruppell. 

FRENCH  SYNONYM. — Pelican  Blanc :  Temminck. 

The  White  Pelican  (Pelicanus  onocrotalus)  is  as  large  as  a  Swan. 
Its  bill  is  about  fifteen  inches  in  length.  Its  plumage  is  white, 
with  a  slightly  rosy  tint,  which  is  brightest  in  the  breeding  season  ; 
the  pinnaries  and  spurious  wings  are  black ;  the  crest  and  a  few 
feathers  on  the  neck  yellowish. 

This  species  received  from  the  ancients  the  name  of  Onocrotalus, 
because  they  fancied  that  they  discovered  a  resemblance  in  its  cry 
to  the  braying  of  an  ass.  It  is  very  common  on  the  lakes  and 
rivers  of  Hungary  and  Southern  Russia,  as  well  as  on  the  banks  of 
the  Danube.  If  it  is  seen  in  France,  it  is  purely  accidental,  as  it  is 
a  rare  visitor.  A  wild  rocky  shore,  where  it  can  look  down  on 


THE  CEESTED  PELICAN.  295 

the  sea,  is  the  favourite  haunt  of  the  Pelican ;  but  it  is  not  un- 
common for  it  to  perch  on  trees.  The  nest  is  formed  of  coarse 
reedy  grass,  with  a  lining  of  finer  quality ;  it  is  generally  made  on 
the  ground,  and  is  about  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  in  which  it 
lays  four,  sometimes  five,  white  eggs,  but  more  frequently  two, 
slightly  oblong,  and  alike  at  both  ends.  Fish  forms  its  principal 
food,  which  it  captures  chiefly  in  shallow  inlets ;  for  it  is  no  diver, 
although  on  the  wing  it  dashes  upon  a  fish  occasionally  from  a 
great  height,  and  that  with  such  velocity  that  it  submerges  itself, 
but  its  buoyancy  brings  it  immediately  to  the  surface.  Occasionally 
it  flies  very  high,  but  it  generally  just  poises  itself  over  the 
water.  Notwithstanding  its  webbed  feet,  it  often  perches  on  trees 
— a  habit  which  Sonnerat  describes  as  peculiar  to  the  female  in 
the  evening,  after  having  fed  and  protected  her  young  during 
the  day. 

THE  CRESTED  PELICAN. 

SYNONYMS. — Pdicanus  crispus :  Bonaparte,  Temminck,  Brack.  Pelican  : 
English  authors.  P.  onocrotalus  (var.  Onentalis) :  Linn,  Pallas,  Dal- 
matian. Riesen-pelikan  :  German  authors. 

The  Crested  Pelican,  in  common  with  the  White  Pelican,  in- 
habits the  south-east  of  Europe  and  Africa,  and  is  also  found  in 
Hungary,  Dalmatia,  Greece,  the  Crimea,  and  the  Ionian  Islands, 
as  well  as  in  Algeria,  and,  according  to  some  authors,  it  is  fre- 
quently met  with  in  China. 

It  has  white  plumage,  with  the  exception  that  the  ends  of  the 
feathers  of  the  back  and  wings  are  black.  The  feathers  of  the 
head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  are  twisted  up  so  as  to  form  a 
tolerably  large  tuft  or  crest :  hence  the  name  it  bears.  Its  habitat 
is  principally  the  marshes  round  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  isles 
adjacent  to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube. 

Of  their  habits,  travellers  in  these  regions  give  very  interesting 
descriptions.  Count  Miikle  states  that  they  are  plentiful  on  the 
lakes  of  Missolonghi,  and  in  the  marshy  grounds  near  Thermopylae. 
In  situations  incredibly  difficult  of  access,  especially  on  floating 
islands,  scarcely  over  the  water-line,  they  place  their  nests  thickly 
together,  supported  among  reeds  and  rushes.  The  vicinity  of 
these  congregated  nests  is  rendered  indescribably  offensive  by  the 


296  DUCKS,  GEESE,  SWANS,  AND  PELICANS. 

foul   fish  they  have  dropped  about,   and  the  disagreeable  white 
dung  with  which  all  the  neighbourhood  is  covered. 

"  Time  was,"  says  Mr.  W.  H.  Simpson,  "  and  that  not  so  long 
ago,  when  Pelicanus  crispus  lived  in  hundreds  all  the  year  round, 
from  the  rocky  promontory  of  Kourtzalari,  hard  by  the  mouth  of 
the  Achelous,  on  the  western  extremity  of  the  lagoon,  near  the 
island  of  Mtolico,  up  the  northern  arm,  and  on  the  east  along  the 
great  mud  flats  which  mark  the  limits  of  the  present  delta  of 
Phidaris.  Nowadays,  however,  a  solitary  individual  may  be  seen 
fishing  here  and  there  throughout  the  vicinity ;  the  remnant  have 
betaken  themselves  to  the  islands  which  divide  the  Gulf  of  Proco- 
panisto  from  that  of  ^Etolico.  Here,  towards  the  end  of  February 
last,  the  community  constituted  a  group  of  seven  nests — a  sad  fall- 
ing off  from  the  year  1838,  when  thirty-four  nests  were  grouped 
upon  a  neighbouring  islet.  As  we  approached  the  spot  in  a  boat 
the  Pelicans  left  their  nests,  and  taking  to  the  water,  sailed  away 
like  a  fleet  of  stately  ships,  leaving  their  preconcerted  nursery  in 
possession  of  the  invader.  The  boat  grounded  in  two  or  three  feet 
of  mud,  and  when  the  party  had  floundered  through  this,  the 
seven  nests  were  found  to  be  empty.  A  fisherman  had  plundered 
them  that  morning,  taking  from  each  nest  one  egg,  which  we 
afterwards  recovered.  The  nests  were  constructed  in  a  great 
measure  of  the  old  reed  palings  used  by  the  natives  for  enclosing 
fish,  mixed  with  such  pieces  of  the  vegetation  of  the  islet  as  were 
suitable  for  the  purpose.  The  seven  nests  were  contiguous,  and 
disposed  in  the  shape  of  an  irregular  cross,  the  navel  of  the  cross, 
which  was  the  tallest  nest,  being  about  thirty  inches  high,  the  two 
next  in  line  being  about  two  feet,  and  the  two  forming  the  arms 
being  a  few  inches  lower,  the  two  extremes  at  either  end  being 
about  fourteen  inches  from  the  ground.  .  .  .  The  eggs  are  chalky, 
like  others  of  the  Pelicanidse,  very  rough  in  texture,  and  some 
of  them  streaked  with  blood."— ("  Ibis/'  vii.  p.  395.) 

THE  BROWN  PELICAN  (P.fuscus). 

The  Brown  Pelican  is  an  American  species,  smaller  than  the 
preceding,  and  is  described  at  some  length  by  Nuttall.  It  has  the 
head  and  the  neck  variegated  with  white  and  ash- colour ;  all  the 


THE  SPECTACLED  PELICAN.  297 

rest  of  the  plumage  of  a  brownish,  grey,  with  whitish  marks  on  the 
back;  the  pouch  is  of  an  ashy  blue,  striped  with  a  reddish  hue. 
It  is  found  in  the  Larger  Antilles,  on  the  coasts  of  Peru,  in 
Bengal,  and  in  South  Carolina. 

THE  SPECTACLED  PELICAN  (Pelicanus  conspicillatus) . 

The  Spectacled  Pelican,  which  is  only  found  in  southern 
climates,  is  thus  named  from  the  naked  skin  which  surrounds 
the  eye,  reminding  one  of  spectacles  by  its  more  or  less  circular 
form.  Its  plumage,  like  that  of  its  congeners,  is  white. 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE 


"  NOTWITHSTANDING  the  dissimilarity  of  the  bill/'  says  Mr.  Vigors 
(Linn.  Trans.,  vol.  xiv.),  "  the  Sterna  and  Rhynchops  most  inti- 
mately accord  in  habits  and  external  characters.  The  Gull-billed 
Tern  of  Colonel  Montagu  conducts  us  from  these  genera  to  the 
groups  which  compose  the  Linnsean  genus  Larus  —  now  divided 
into  two  genera,  Lestris  and  Larus.  From  this  group  we  are  led 
to  the  genera  Diomedece  and  Haladroma,  by  the  absence  of  the 
hind  toe,  by  means  of  the  species  Larus  tridactylus  (Latham), 
where,  though  the  hind  toe  is  not  absolutely  different,  as  might  be 
inferred  from  its  name,  there  appears  but  the  rudiment  of  one. 
The  last-  mentioned  genus,  Haladroma,  originally  belonged  to 
Procellaria,  and  was  separated  from  it  by  its  tridactyle  foot. 
Even  in  this  character,  however,  it  forms  a  connection  from  Larus 
to  the  groups  that  compose  the  genuine  Procellaria,  all  of  which 
are  distinguished  by  the  singular  peculiarity  of  having  no  true 
hind  toe,  but  only  a  nail  adhering  to  the  tarsus  in  its  place. 
We  thus  arrive  at  the  Petrels,  separated  into  groups  of  the  Pro- 
cellaria (Anet),  Pachyptila  (Ilf.),  Pu/ucus  (Ray)." 


THE  LONGIPENNES  (Cuvier). 

The  Grands  Voiliers,  or  Long-winged  Birds,  are  thus  named 
from  their  powerful  and  enduring  faculty  of  flight.  Mariners 
meet  with  them  everywhere,  and  easily  recognise  them  by  their 
long  and  pointed  wings,  forked  tails,  and  short  legs.  In  this 
order  the  back  toe  is  unconnected  with  the  others,  or  is  wanting, 
and  the  membrane  which  unites  the  others  much  notched;  their  bills 


\ 


THE  TERN.  299 

are  sharp  and  pointed,  and  without  indentations.  They  pass  their 
lives  at  a  great  distance  from  land,  and  do  not  approach  the  shore 
except  for  breeding  purposes.  To  this  sub-order  belong  the  Sea 
Swallows  (Sterna),  Scissors-bills  or  Skimmers  (Rynchops),  the  Sea 
Gulls  (Laridce),  the  Labbes  (Stercoraria),  the  Petrels  (Procel- 
laria),  Albatross  (Diomedea). 

THE  TERN  (Sterna  hirundo,  Linn.). 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS.  —  Common  Tern :  Selby,  McGillivray,  Morris. 
Greater  Tern  :  Montagu,  Bewick,  Pennant.  Local  names  :  Sea  Swallow, 
Gull  Teaser,  Tarney,  Tarrock,  Kippock,  Scraye. 

LATIN  SYNONYMS. — Sterna  hirundo:  Pennant,  Montagu,  Bewick,  Flemming, 
Selby,  Jenyns,  Gould,  Yarrell,  Latham.  Sterna  major :  Brisson.  Hirundo 
marina ;  Ray,  Wiiloughby. 

There  are  six  species  of  Sterna,  properly  so  called,  described  by 
British  naturalists;  and  six  others,  according  to  McGillivray, 
nearly  resembling  them  in  form,  colour,  and  habit.  The  true 
Sterna  has  the  bill  straight,  slender,  compressed,  and  tapering ; 
it  is  about  the  length  of  the  head,  with  the  edge  sharp,  and  the  tip 
elongated  and  pointed ;  the  upper  mandible  armate ;  legs  short, 
slender ;  anterior  toes  small ;  membrane  emarginate ;  wings  long 
and  pointed;  tail  forked.  These  birds  are  remarkable  for  their 
buoyant,  graceful,  easy  flight,  and  the  soft,  loose  texture  of  their 
plumage.  Their  prevailing  colours  are  a  pale  bluish  grey  or  black, 
and  white. 

The  Tern,  or  Sea  Swallow,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  on  account 
of  its  long  pointed  wings  and  forked  tail,  appears  to  be,  like  the 
Swallow  properly  so  called,  a  perfect  disregarder  of  rest.  They 
may  be  seen  soaring  in  the  air  at  a  very  great  height,  and  then 
suddenly  darting  down  upon  their  prey,  which  their  piercing 
sight  has  enabled  them  to  descry  in  the  water.  Often,  too,  they 
may  be  noticed  skimming  over  the  surface  of  the  waves  with 
astonishing  rapidity,  and  seizing  in  their  flight  any  fish  which  is 
imprudent  enough  to  show  itself.  Their  flight  over  the  sea 
seems  incessant,  and  it  is  rarely  they  are  seen  swimming.  When 
they  need  rest,  they  seek  some  solitary,  isolated  rock  in  the 
ocean.  They  congregate  in  flocks  more  or  less  numerous,  and 
they  manifest  so  much  attachment  for  individuals  of  their  own 
species,  that,  when  one  of  them  is  wounded  by  the  sportsman's 


300 


THE  LABILE. 


gun,  the  others  surround  it,  full  of  grief  and  sympathy,  nor  will 
they  leave  it  until  all  hope  of  saving  its  life  is  at  an  end. 

These  birds  in  their  flight  give  utterance  to  shrill  and  piercing 
calls,  which,  when  produced  by  numbers  together,  cause  a  deafen- 
ing uproar  in  the  sky.  These  calls  are  raised  with  increased 
power  when  they  are  about  to  undertake  some  longer  flight  than 
usual.  But  the  time,  above  all  others,  when  their  noise  is  most 
discordant  and  shrill  is  the  breeding  season.  "  On  going  up 
to  one  of  their  breeding-places,"  says  McGillivray,  "  which  may 
always  be  discovered  from  a  distance,  as  some  of  the  birds  will 
be  seen  hovering  over  it,  one  is  sure  to  be  met  by  several  of  them, 


Fig.  106.— The  Tern  (Sterna  hirundo,  Linn.). 

which  hasten  to  remonstrate  with  the  intruder  by  harsh  cries  and 
threatened  blows.  As  you  draw  nearer,  more  of  them  leave  their 
nests;  and  at  length  they  are  all  on  the  wing,  wheeling  and 
bounding — now  high  and  now  low — at  times  coming  quite  close, 
and  increasing  their  cries,  which  resemble  the  syllables  '  cree- 
cree-cree-ae.' ' 

Like  the  Land  Swallows,  these  sea-birds  arrive  on  our  coasts  in  the 
spring.  They  disperse  themselves  over  our  lakes  and  large  ponds, 
where  they  feed  on  any  animal  substances  they  meet  with — either 
fresh  or  putrefied — fish,  mollusks,  or  insects.  Montagu  says 
they  are  found  in  great  abundance  on  the  Sussex  and  Kentish 


THE  LITTLE  TEEN.  301 

coasts,  particularly  about  Winchelsea,  and  in  the  Romney  marshes 
towards  Dungeness.  Mr.  Selby  found  them  breeding  in  the 
Solway  and  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  McGillivray  met  with  them  in 
great  numbers  in  South  Uist  and  Long  Island;  and  his  corre- 
spondents, Messrs.  Bailie  and  Heddle,  noted  their  annual  arrival  in 
the  Orkneys  in  May.  "  They  arrive  in  straggling  flocks  in  the 
beginning  of  May,"  says  McGillivray,  "and  soon  betake  them- 
selves to  their  breeding-places,  which  are  sandy  tracts,  gravelly 
or  pebbly  ridges,  rocky  ground,  sometimes  low,  shelving  rocks 
on  the  sea-shore ;  their  nests  being  bits  of  grass  or  fragments  of 
sea- weed,  placed  in  a  mere  depression.  In  stormy  weather  they 
fly  little,  but  shelter  themselves  by  resting  on  the  shore.  They  go 
to  roost  very  late  in  the  evening  ;  long  after  sunset,,  they  are  still 
engaged  in  seeking  their  sustenance." 

Terns  always  assemble  in  flocks  on  the  sea-coast,  on  the  mar- 
gins of  lakes,  in  marshes,  or  wooded  spots  near  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
at  their  breeding-time.  Their  nests  are  placed  so  near  to  one 
another,  that  the  hens  sitting  actually  come  in  contact.  They  lay 
their  eggs,  to  the  number  of  two  or  three,  which  hatch  in  twenty 
days.  These  eggs  are  esteemed  as  a  very  delicate  viand  :  in 
the  United  States  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  them. 

The  Sea  Swallow  is  found  in  all  the  regions  both  of  the  Old  and 
New  World,  Australia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

The  Tern  (Sterna  hirundo)  is  very  common  in  France,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic,  and  in  the  Mediterranean. 


THE  LITTLE  TERN  (Sterna  minuta,  Linn.). 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMS. — Lesser  Tern  :  Montagu,  Selby.  Lesser  Sea  Swallow, 
Little  Tern :  McGillivray,  Flemming. 

LATIN  SYNONYM. — Sterna  minuta:  Latham,  Flenaming,  Selby,  McGilli- 
vray, Morris,  Jenyns,  Temminck. 

FKENCH  SYNONYMS. — La  Sterne  Petite ;  Figuier.  La  Petite  Hirondelle  de 
Mer:  Temminck. 

This  smallest  of  the  Terns  has  many  habits  in  common  with  the 
Sterna  hirundo.  "  In  the  elegance  of  its  buoyant  flight,"  says 
McGillivray,  "  as  it  skims  over  the  water  or  shoots  along  its  way 
to  and  from  its  breeding- place,  the  tiny  creature  is  an  object  of 


302  THE  LAEID^E. 

. 

admiration  to  every  lover  of  nature.  You  may  see  a  pair  coming 
up  from  a  distance,  flying  at  the  height  of  a  few  yards  over  the 
waves,  their  long  wings  winnowing  the  air  and  impelling  them  on 
by  starts  as  they  wind  their  way  in  undulating  and  graceful 
movements.  Suddenly  their  flight  is  arrested  over  a  large  pool 
left  on  the  sands  by  the  retreating  tide.  With  quick  beats  of 
their  wings  they  hover  almost  stationary  over  the  water,  with 
downward-pointed  bills,  intently  searching  for  their  prey  beneath. 
One  drops  with  upraised  wings,  dips  for  a  moment,  and  rises 
with  a  small  fish  in  its  bill;  the  other  is  equally  successful. 
Onward  they  proceed,  now  and  then  emitting  their  shrill  cry. 
Far  ahead  is  seen  a  flock  engaged  in  picking  up  their  prey,  and 
onward  the  stragglers  speed  to  join  their  kindred. " 

The  Little  Tern  has  the  bill  slightly  longer  than  the  head,  and, 
like  the  Common  Tern,  slender,  nearly  straight,  much  compressed, 
tapering,  and  acute ;  the  eyes  and  feet  small ;  plumage  soft 
and  blended ;  wings  long,  narrow,  and  pointed ;  tail  long  and 
deeply  forked ;  upper  part  of  the  head  and  nape  black  ;  neck,  back, 
and  wings  light  greyish  blue  ;  hind  part  of  the  back  and  tail  white  ; 
length  to  the  end  of  the  tail  about  ten  inches  ;  wings  twenty-one 
inches. 

This  species  reaches  our  shores  in  the  beginning  of  May,  and 
settles  along  the  whole  eastern  and  southern  coast,  from  the  Land's 
End  to  the  Orkneys,  but  is  rare  on  the  west  coast.  The  Firth  of 
Forth,  the  sands  of  Barry,  near  Dundee,  a  place  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Don,  and  another  at  the  Ythan,  are  noted  as  their  haunts,  as  are 
the  sands  of  Strathbeg  Loch,  and  the  sands  between  Burghead  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Findhorn.  It  is  also  abundant  on  the  sea-coasts 
of  Holland  and  France,  where  it  feeds  on  fish-spawn  and  small 
winged  insects. 

The  Noddy  (Sterna  stolida),  which  frequents  rivers  and  the 
borders  of  lakes,  especially  marshes,  makes  its  nest  among  the 
reeds  and  water-lily  leaves  :  this  is  the  species  most  plentiful  in 
America.  The  Silver- winged  Tern  (Sterna  leucoptera]  inhabits  the 
bays  and  gulfs  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  only  an  accidental 
visitor  to  the  north  of  France.  The  Arctic  Tern  (Sterna  arctica) 
is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  regularly  visits  the  sea- 
coast  of  the  north  of  France.  We  may  also  mention  the  Whis- 


THE  SCISSOES-BILL. 


303 


kered  or  Marsh  Tern  (Sterna  leucupareia) ,  the  Gull-billed  Tern 
(Sterna  anglica),  the  Roseate  Tern  (Sterna  Dougalli),  the  Sandwich 
Tern  {Sterna  cautiaca),  and  the  Tschegruna,  or  Caspian  Tern 
(Sterna  caspica),  all  of  which  either  breed  upon  the  British  coast, 
or  are  frequent  visitors  there,  although  they  rarely  reach  France. 

THE  SCISSORS- BILLS,  OR  SEA  SKIMMERS  (Rynchops,  Linn.). 
The  Scissors-bills  have  received  their  name  from  the  conforma- 
tion of  their  beaks,  which  are  flattened  laterally  into  two  laminae 
fitting  one  on  the  other,  forming  two  mandibles  compressed  into 


-A'     \ 


Fig.  107.— The  Black  Scissors-bill  (liynckops  niyra). 

cutting  blades,  the  upper  being  one-third  shorter  than  the  lower. 
In  order  to  pick  up  the  shrimps  and  small  fishes  on  which  they 
feed,  these  birds  are  obliged  to  skim  the  surface  of  the  water, 
dipping  the  lower  mandible  of  their  bill,  the  upper  mandible  being 
kept  open  and  clear  of  the  water  till  aquatic  insects  or  other  small 
fry  have  entered  into  the  lower  portion  of  it.*  The  singular  form 
of  their  bills  is  also  of  service  to  them  in  opening  such  bivalve 
shell-fish  as  come  in  their  way.  They  frequently  watch  these 
mollusks,  and  when  they  notice  that  the  shell  of  the  latter 

*  Catesby  says :  "  These  birds  frequent  near  the  sea-coasts  of  Carolina.  They 
fly  close  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  from  which  they  seem  to  receive  somewhat  of 
food." 


304  THE  LARID.E. 

is  slightly  open,  they  plunge  the  lower  mandible  of  their  long  bill 
into  it ;  they  then  break  the  ligament  of  the  shell  by  beating  it 
against  the  rock.  The  tenement  being  thus  destroyed,  there  is 
no  obstacle  to  their  devouring  the  inhabitant. 

The  only  remarkable  species  of  this  bird  is  the  Black  Scissors- 
bill  (Rynchops  nigra),  frequently  called  the  Cut- water.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  a  Pigeon ;  its  prevailing  colour  is  white,  top  of  the 
head  and  shoulders  black,  with  a  white  band  on  the  wings.  These 
birds  are  very  numerous  in  the  "West  Indian  seas.  They  fly  with 
a  slow  motion,  and,  like  the  Gulls  and  other  sea-birds,  they  occa- 
sionally form  such  dense  flocks  that  the  sky  is  actually  darkened 
for  the  space  of  a  league. 


GULLS  AND  ALLIED  SPECIES. 

Gulls  and  their  congeners  include  the  well-known  shore-birds 
generally  called  Gulls,  more  especially  the  Skuas  (Lestris),  Gulls 
(Larus),  and  Mews  (Grama).  They  are  characterised  by  a  light 
body,  more  or  less  compact ;  neck  of  moderate  length  ;  head  ovate  ; 
bill  shorter  than  the  head,  straight,  compressed ;  convex  ridge  on 
upper  mandible,  nasal  groove  long ;  lower  mandible  with  the  angle 
long  and  narrow  ;  mouth  moderate ;  tongue  fleshy ;  eyes  small ; 
legs  generally  short ;  tibia  bare ;  tarsus  short,  compressed  ;  hind 
toe  small ;  middle  toe  longest ;  fore  toe  moderate  in  length  and 
slender ;  connecting  membrane  full,  margins  only  concave  ;  claws 
generally  small,  arcuate,  acute,  and  more  or  less  compressed. 

These  birds  inhabit  the  sea- shore,  along  which  they  wander  in 
search  of  food;  the  larger  species  preying  on  fish,  Crustacea 
and  mollusca,  and  the  carcasses  of  cetacea  and  other  marine 
mammalia  cast  up  by  the  sea.  They  all  pursue  shoals  of  fish 
in  the  open  sea,  often  to  great  distances  from  land.  Their 
plumage  is  full,  soft,  close,  elastic,  and  well  blended  on  the  back 
and  wings  ;  wings  long,  broad,  and  pointed ;  the  tail,  of  twelve 
feathers,  rounded  and  forked. 

The  Sea  Mews  (Gavia)  are  connected  with  the  Terns,  yet 
still  have  some  characteristics  of  the  Gulls.  However,  they 
are  of  smaller  size  than  the  latter,  have  more  slender  forms, 
and  their  feet  and  bills  are  comparatively  feebler.  We  shall 


THE  GULL.  305 

describe  the  Mews  and  Gulls  under  one  head,  as  they  have  the 
same  generic  characteristics,  the  only  difference  between  them 
being  that  of  size.  The  name  of  Gull  applies  to  those  species 
which  are  at  least  as  large  as  Ducks  ;  that  of  Mew  to  those  which 
are  smaller. 

The  Gull  (Larus)  and  the  Mew  are  found  in  every  country,  on 
every  coast,  out  at  sea,  and  sometimes  even  on  fresh  waters,  lakes, 
and  rivers.  These  birds  literally  swarm  on  some  coasts,  where 
they  devour  every  kind  of  food  they  meet  with.  Fish,  either  fresh 
or  stale ;  flesh,  either  fresh  or  decomposed  ;  worms ;  shell-fish — all 
are  alike  acceptable.  If  these  birds  happen  to  notice  the  car- 
cass of  any  animal,  either  floating  on  the  sea  or  cast  up  on  the 
shore,  it  soon  becomes  their  prey,  and  is  speedily  devoured  by 
these  "  Sea  Yultures,"  as  Buffon  calls  them.  Should  one  of  them 
discover  the  remains  of  a  dead  whale,  or  other  large  oceanic 
mammalia,  it  apprises  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and  immediately  they 
all  pour  down  upon  their  booty,  uttering  the  most  discordant 
cries.  They  gorge  themselves  up  to  their  very  throats ;  but  their 
stomachs  soon  digest  the  rapidly-decomposing  animal  diet.  They 
may  also  be  observed  in  search  of  other  prey,  skimming  over  the 
surface  of  the  water,  their  keen  eyes  anxiously  scanning  far  and 
near  for  their  most  favourite  food,  young  fish. 

During  the  breeding  season  they  visit  islands  where  they  are 
sure  to  find  thousands  of  eggs  as  well  as  young  birds.  In  spite 
of  the  piteous  shrieks  of  the  parents  and  the  plaintive  cries  of  the 
young,  the  whole  colony  is  sacrificed  to  their  gluttony ;  the  eggs 
are  sucked,  and  the  scarcely-hatched  young  ones  are  devoured. 
But,  as  they  are  always  cowards,  whenever  these  sea- vagabonds 
notice  the  approach  of  a  bird  more  warlike  than  themselves, 
although,  perhaps,  much  smaller,  their  only  endeavour  is  to  hide 
themselves,  or  depart  with  all  the  celerity  which  their  long  wings 
can  give  them.  The  mere  sight  of  a  Labbe  (Stercoraria)  is  quite 
sufficient  to  make  them  disgorge  their  food.  These  birds,  which 
are  essentially  water  scavengers,  are  frequently  very  much  in  want 
of  food,  especially  during  stormy  weather.  Nature  in  her  good- 
ness, however,  has  well  enabled  them  to  endure  hunger. 

Sea  Gulls  and  Sea  Mews  are  found  everywhere,  but  they  are 
most  numerous  on  the  flat  and  low  sea-shores  of  the  North,  where 

x 


306 


THE  LAEID^E. 


the  dead  bodies  of  whales  and  other  large  fish  furnish  them  with 
abundant  food.  They  prefer  building  their  nests  on  desert  islands 
in  the  Polar  seas,  where  they  are  safe  from  man's  intrusion. 
They  lay  two  or  three  eggs  in  a  hole  scratched  in  the  sand,  or  in 
the  cleft  of  a  rock. 

These  birds  are  easily  tamed,  and  soon  take  to  domestic  habits  ; 
but  their  flesh,  which  is  hard  and  tough  as  leather,  is  unfit  for 
human  food.  In  order  to  render  them  eatable  in  cases  of  emer- 
gency, the  sailors,  after  haying  skinned  them,  hang  them  up  by 
their  feet,  and  leave  them  exposed  to  the  evening  dew  for  two  or 


Fig.  108. — Large  White- winged  Gull  (Larus  glaucus,  Yarrell). 

three  nights.  By  this  means  a  little  of  the  disagreeable  smell 
passed  by  their  carcass  is  got  rid  of. 

The  most  remarkable  species  of  the  Sea  Gull  are  the  following  : — 

The  Large  White- winged  Gull,  Larus  glaucus  (Fig.  108),  is  all 
white  except  its  back,  which  is  of  a  light  bluish  grey.  It  is  most 
frequently  found  towards  the  east  of  Europe,  and  is  rare  on  the 
Atlantic  coasts. 

The  Great  Black-backed  Gull,  Larus  marinus  (Fig.  109),  is  of 
a  pure  white,  with  a  black  back.  It  is  very  common  in  northern 
regions,  and  habitually  visits  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  to  the 
north  of  France. 

The  Herring  Gull  (Larus  argentatus,  Yarrell),  is  white,  with  a 


THE  SEA  MEW.  307 

blue  back.  It  is  seen  throughout  the  year  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic. 

The  only  species  of  Sea  Mew  which  it  is  necessary  for  us  to 
describe  are : — 

The  "White  Sea  Mew,  or  Senator  (Larus  eburneus)*  which  is 
found  but  incidentally  in  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe.  It 
is  very  common  in  Greenland  and  Baffin's  Bay.  Its  plumage  is 
entirely  white,  tinted  with  pink  underneath ;  it  has  black  feet 
and  a  bluish  bill. 

The  Brown-masked  Sea  Mew  (Larus  capistratus)]  has  the  top 


Fig.  109.— Great  Black-backed  Gull  (Larus  marinus,  Yarrell). 

of  its  head  and  throat  of  a  light  brown  colour ;  the  inside  of  the 
wings  are  light  grey  ;  the  rest  of  its  body  is  white  ;  and  its  bill 
and  tarsi  are  of  a  reddish-brown  colour.  This  species  is  common 
in  England. 

The  Laughing  Sea  Mew  (Larus  ridibundus]  J  has  its  head  black  ; 
its  neck,  tail,  and  lower  parts  of  a  white  hue.  Its  back  and 
wings  are  bluish  grey,  and  its  beak  and  feet  vermilion  red.  This 
is  the  species  most  easily  tamed.  It  is  called  the  Laughing  Sea 
Mew  on  account  of  its  cry.  It  is  widely  spread  all  over  Europe, 
and  builds  its  nest  on  the  coast  at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  It  is 
only  a  visitor  in  France  and  Germany,  but  in  Holland  it  is  found 
a  permanent  resident. 

*  Ivory  Gull  of  Yarrell.  t  The  Masked  Gull  of  Yarrell. 

+  Black-headed  Gull  of  Yarrell. 


308 


THE  LAEID^E. 


The  Grey  Sea  Mew,  Larus  canus  (Fig.    110),    is   commonly 
called  the  Sea  Pigeon.     Its  plumage  is  of  a  beautiful  white  colour 


Fig.  110.— Grey  Sea  Mews  (Larus  canus,  Yarrell). 

with  the  exception  of  a  grey  back.  When  tempests  threaten,  this 
species  disperses  in  flocks  over  the  inland  districts.  It  is  common 
in  summer  in  the  regions  of  the  Arctic  Circle ;  in  autumn  and 
winter  it  is  found  on  the  sea- coasts  of  temperate  and  southern 
Europe. 

The  Skua,  Labbe,  or  Dung-bird  (Stercwaria,   Vieillot),  Fig. 
Ill,   is   remarkable  for  its  stout    bill,    which    is    nearly  cj^lin- 


Fig.  111.— The  Common  Skua  (Lestns  cataractes,  Yarrell). 

drical,  and  covered  with  a  membrane  from  the  base  as  far  as  the 
nostrils;  the  upper  mandible   is   convex,  hooked,   and  armed  at 


THE  SKUA.  309 

the  extremity  with  a  crooked  point,  which  almost  appears  as  if 
it  was  supplementary.  These  birds  principally  frequent  the  sea- 
shore, but  at  the  time  of  storms  they  venture  further  inland. 
They  fly  very  rapidly,  even  against  the  strongest  wind.  They 
pursue  the  Sea  Mews  and  the  Terns  most  inveterately,  and  some- 
times even  Boobies  and  Cormorants,  their  only  aim  being  to 
deprive  these  birds  of  the  prey  they  have  caught ;  for  the  Sea 
Mews  and  the  Terns  are  their  purveyors.  Incessantly  do  they 
pursue,  harass,  and  beat  these  species  until  they  have  forced 
them  to  disgorge  and  drop  their  booty:  before  the  fish  falls 
into  the  sea  it  is  caught  by  the  active  persecutors.  This  singular 
habit  has  given  rise  to  the  belief  that  Skuas  feed  upon  the  excre- 
ment of  the  Sea  Mew,  and  to  this  they  owe  their  name  of  Dung- 
birds. 

In  some  countries,  as  the  Shetland  Islands,  these  birds  are 
held  in  veneration.  The  care  and  protection  of  the  sheep  are 
almost  entirely  intrusted  to  them,  owing  to  their  possessing  an 
inveterate  hatred  against  Eagles  ;  for  as  soon  as  the  monarch  of  the 
air  appears  in  view,  three  or  four  of  them  combine  together  to 
give  him  battle.  They  never  attack  him  in  front,  but  harass 
him  pitilessly  until  his  strength  is  so  reduced  that  they  can 
completely  conquer  him,  or  at  least  force  him  to  retreat.  In 
recompense  for  these  services,  the  inhabitants  are  in  the  habit 
of  throwing  to  the  Skuas  the  refuse  of  their  fisheries. 

These  birds  almost  always  live  in  solitude,  so  that  they  may 
be  more  readily  able  to  procure  their  food,  which  consists  of  fish, 
mollusks,  eggs,  young  sea-birds,  and  small  mammals.  They  inhabit 
the  Arctic  regions  of  Europe  and  America,  and  make  their  nests 
in  the  heather ;  they  lay  from  two  to  four  eggs,  which  are 
sat  upon  by  the  male  and  female  birds  alternately.  They  are 
courageous  enough  to  defend  their  young  brood  against  any  kind 
of  animal,  and  even  against  man. 

There  are  four  European  species:  the  Parasite  Skua  (Lestris 
parasiticus) ,  which  inhabits  Greenland,  Newfoundland,  and  Spitz- 
bergen,  and  visits  tolerably  often  our  Atlantic  coasts ;  Richard- 
son's Skua  (Lestris  Richardsonii] ,  which  is  very  plentiful  in 
Sweden,  Norway,  Lapland,  and  North  America ;  the  Pome- 
rine  Skua  (Lestris  pomarinus),  which  is  very  common  in  New- 


310  THE 

foundland,  Iceland,  and  the  Feroe  Islands  ;    the   Common  Skua 
(Lestris  cataractes),  commonly  called  the  Brown  Stoeland. 

The  PETRELS  (Procellaria,  Linn.)  are  characterised  by  a  gibbous 
beak,  the  extremity  of  which  is  hooked,  and  seems  made  all  in 
one  piece,  and  as  if  jointed  on  to  the  rest  of  the  upper  mandible. 
These  birds  never  dive,  and  rarely  swim  ;  but  in  their  rapid  flight 
they  skim  over  the  waves,  and  actually  appear  to  walk  upon  the 
waters.  To  this  habit  they  owe  the  name  of  Petrel,  which  simply 
means  "  Little  Peter,"  in  allusion  to  the  miracle  of  St.  Peter,  who 
walked  upon  the  restless  waters  of  the  Lake  of  Genesareth. 

The  family  of  the  Petrels  contains  several  species  of  very  dif- 
ferent appearance.  They  traverse  immense  distances  in  their 
powerful  and  rapid  flight,  although  they  nearly  always  keep  close 
to  the  water.  They  never  draw  near  to  the  coast  except  to  build 
their  nests,  for  which  purpose  they  select  a  little  crevice  in  some 
steep  rock,  in  which  they  deposit  a  large  white  egg.  While  sitting 
upon  it,  they  keep  up  a  low  and  continual  noise,  like  that  of  a 
spinning-wheel. 

In  general,  Petrels  are  not  of  a  very  engaging  aspect ;  but  they 
are  an  invaluable  resource  to  the  poor  people  who  inhabit  the 


Fig.  112.— The  Blue  Petrel  (Procellaria  carulea,  Gmelin). 

islands  in  the  frigid  seas,  who  do  not  object  to  eat  the  flesh  of 
these  birds,  although  they  principally  value  them  for  their  warm 
down  and  the  oil  which  can  be  extracted  from  their  stomachs. 
The  quantity  of  oil  which  these  birds  contain  is  so  large  that  it  is 
used  as  an  article  of  diet.  In  the  Feroe  Islands  candles  are 
made  from  this  oleaginous  matter.  Often,  indeed,  the  islanders 


THE  PETREL.  311 

make  the  bird  itself  serve  as  a  candle  to  illuminate  their  gloomy 
vigils.  This  is  performed  by  passing  a  wick  through  the  body 
of  the  bird  when  just  killed. 

These  birds  appear  to  love  the  tempest;  they  run  over  the 
roughest  waves,  and  seem  as  if  they  were  enjoying  themselves 
as  they  pass  up  and  down  the  declivities  of  the  mountains  of 
foam.  When  the  storm  is  too  violent  for  them,  they  take  refuge 
upon  the  nearest  rocks,  or  even  on  the  yards  of  a  passing  ship. 
Sailors,  who  are  confessedly  simple  and  superstitious,  take  these 
birds  for  evil  spirits,  birds  of  the  devil,  harbingers  of  storms,  and 
so  forth,  simply  because  they  more  frequently  see  them  during  a 
storm.  Their  black  plumage  tends  to  confirm  the  sailor  in  his 
superstition. 

When  the  vessels  sent  to  the  whale  fishery  have  passed  the 
Shetland  Islands,  and  entered  the  northern  seas,  which  are  almost 
always  very  rough,  the  Petrels  are  seen  flying  about  amidst  the 
eddies  of  foam  which  are  formed  by  the  movement  of  the  ship. 
They  keep  in  attendance  until  something  is  thrown  overboard, 
for  they  are  extremely  voracious,  and  especially  fond  of  fat,  par- 
ticularly that  of  the  whale.  When  the  fishermen  begin  to  cut 
up  a  whale,  the  Petrels  flock  together  to  the  number  of  several 
thousands.  They  are  not  afraid  to  approach  within  reach,  so  that 
they  may  be  taken  or  killed  with  a  blow  from  a  boat-hook. 
Their- plumage  is  so  close,  that  shot  fired  at  them,  except  at  close 
range,  will  not  penetrate. 

Petrels  walk  on  land  with  much  difficulty.  When  they  require 
rest  in  the  open  sea,  with  their  heads  placed  under  their  wings, 
they  sleep  on  the  water,  allowing  themselves  to  be  borne  about 
at  the  mercy  of  the  wind. 

The  most  remarkable  species  are — the  Giant  Petrel  (Procellaria 
gigantea),  commonly  called  the  Bone-breaker,  which  inhabits  the 
tract  of  ocean  between  Cape  Horn  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; 
the  Chequered  Petrel  (P.  capensis),  commonly  called  the 
Chequered  Pintado,  which  is  a  native  of  the  southern  seas ;  the 
Fulmar  Petrel  (P.  glacialis),  which  inhabits  the  Arctic  seas  ;  the 
Stormy  Petrel  (P.  pelagica),  commonly  called  the  Storm-bird, 
which  frequents  the  seas  of  Europe,  and  after  a  hurricane  appears 
on  the  northern  coasts  of  France ;  the  Forster  or  Blue  Petrel 


312 


THE  LABIIXZE. 


(P.   Forsteri  or  ccerulea),  Fig.    112,  commonly   called  the  Blue 
Petrel,  which  inhabits  the  Antarctic  seas. 

Under  the  name  of  Puffins  those  species  of  Petrels  are  included 
which  have  bills  as  long,  and  sometimes  longer,  than  their  heads, 
and  their  nostrils  in  two  distinct  tubes.  Among  these  are  the 
Grey  Puffin  (Puffinus  cinereus),  which  is  very  common  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  builds  its  nest  in  Corsica ;  the  English  Puffin 
(Puffinus  anglorum),  which  inhabits  the  northern  regions  of  our 
hemisphere;  the  Brown  Puffin  (Procellaria  cequinoctialis) ,  which  in- 
habits the  Southern  Ocean,  and  is  frequently  met  with  at  the  Cape. 


Fig.  113.— The  Common  Albatross  (Diomedea  cxulans,  Linn.). 

The  ALBATROSS  *  is  the  largest  and  most  bulky  of  all  the  birds 
which  fly  over  the  surface  of  the  sea.  It  belongs  principally  to  the 
southern  hemisphere.  The  sailors  know  it  under  the  names  of  Cape 
Sheep  and  Man-of-war,  which  they  give  it  on  account  of  its 
enormous  size.  Its  extended  wings  measure  as  much  as  five 

*  From  the  Portuguese  word  Alcatraz,  applied  by  the  early  navigators  of  that 
nation  to  Cormorants  and  large  sea-birds. — ED. 


THE  ALBATEOSS.  313 

metres  across.*  Its  plumage  is  generally  white,  with  the  exception 
of  a  dark  back.  Courage  is  not  measured  by  size.  This  rule 
holds  good  in  these  birds,  for,  notwithstanding  their  wonderful 
strength  and  their  large,  strong,  sharp,  and  hooked  bills,  they 
exhibit  the  most  unaccountable  cowardice.  Even  a  poor  weak  Sea 
Mew  will  attack  an  Albatross,  and  endeavour  to  tear  its  stomach 
open.  The  pusillanimous  Albatross  can  find  no  better  means  of 
getting  rid  of  his  enemy  than  by  plunging  into  the  water. 
Although  they  are  most  gluttonous  in  taste,  they  prefer  to  fly  away 
rather  than  contend  for  their  food.  This  consists  of  small  marine 
animals,  mollusks,  mucilaginous  zoophytes,  and  the  eggs  and 
spawn  of  fish.  They  will  even  swallow  large  fish  without  tearing 
them  to  pieces.  When  they  are  completely  gorged,  and  the 
fish  which  they  have  seized  is  too  large  to  swallow  whole,  they 
may  be  seen  with  part  of  it  hanging  outside  their  bill,  until  the 
first  half  of  their  prey  is  digested.  The  same  is  done,  as  is 
well  known,  by  several  kinds  of  Serpents.  When  thus  embar- 
rassed, the  Albatross  has  only  one  mode  of  escape  if  it  happens 
to  be  pursued ;  namely,  by  disgorging  the  food  with  which  its 
stomach  is  overloaded. 

Gifted  as  they  are  with  an  extraordinary  power  of  flight,  these 
birds  venture  out  to  enormous  distances  from  all  land,  more  espe- 
cially in  stormy  weather.  They  seem  to  delight  in  the  warring 
of  the  elements.  When  overcome  with  fatigue,  they  take  repose 
on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  placing  their  heads  under  their  wings. 
When  in  this  position  they  are  very  easy  to  capture :  in  order  to 
do  this,  the  sailors  have  only  to  approach  silently,  and  knock  them 
down  with  a  boat-hook  or  spear  them  with  a  harpoon. 

Navigators  have  found  opportunities  of  observing  these  birds  in 
the  Polar  regions,  where  there  is  no  night  during  half  the  year. 
They  see  the  same  flocks  hovering  around  their  vessel  during 
many  successive  days  without  exhibiting  the  least  signs  of  fatigue, 
or  the  slightest  relaxation  in  their  strength.  The  peculiarity  in 
their  mode  of  flight  is  that,  whether  they  are  ascending  or  descend- 
ing, they  seem  to  glide,  for  they  flap  their  wings  but  seldom. 

*  The  weight  of  this  bird  much  varies.  A  specimen  in  the  Leverian  Museum 
measured  thirteen  feet  from  the  tip  of  one  wing  to  the  tip  of  the  other.  One  shot  off 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  said  to  be  seventeen  and  a  half  feet. — ED. 


314  THE  LAEID^l. 

To  follow  in  the  wake  of  some  passing  ship,  probably  because 
the  agitation  of  the  waves  brings  to  the  surface  the  small  fry 
of  marine  animals  which  are  their  principal  food,  appears  to  de- 
light them.  They  also  pounce  upon  anything  that  falls  over- 
board, even  though  it  should  be  a  man.  On  one  occasion  a  sailor 
fell  into  the  sea  from  a  FreDch  vessel,  and  could  not  be  imme- 
diately rescued  because  there  was  no  boat  in  a  fit  state  to  be 
lowered.  Before  such  could  take  place,  a  flock  of  Albatrosses  which 
followed  in  the  ship's  wake  pounced  upon  the  unfortunate  man,  and 
commenced  to  peck  his  head  and  arms.  Being  unable  to  buffet 
both  with  the  sea  and  the  enemies  which  surrounded  him,  the  man 
perished  iinder  the  very  eyes  of  his  comrades. 

The  Albatrosses  and  Petrels  may  be  said  to  be  the  Yultures  of 
the  ocean.  They  may  also  be  said  to  be  its  scavengers,  for  they 
cleanse  the  sea  of  all  the  putrefied  animal  substances  which  float 
on  its  surface. 

At  the  breeding  season,  which  varies  according  to  the  hemi- 
sphere inhabited  by  them,  the  Albatrosses  arrive  at  their  favourite 
haunts,  generally  in  an  exhausted  state ;  but,  however  thin  they 
may  be,  they  soon  grow  fat  upon  the  abundant  supplies  of  food 
which  they  find  in  the  vicinity.  In  the  end  of  September,  to 
build  their  nests,  they  go  in  immense  numbers  to  the  island  of 
Tristan  d'Acunha,  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean.  Their  nests, 
which  are  about  three  feet  in  height,  are  formed  of  mud.  Their 
flesh  is  very  hard,  and  can  only  be  rendered  eatable  by  laying 
it  in  salt  for  a  long  time,  and  afterwards  boiling  it,  flavouring  it 
with  some  piquant  sauce.  Nevertheless  sailors,  as  well  as  the 
inhabitants  of  the  desolate  southern  regions,  use  it,  but  only  in 
the  absence  of  better  food. 

The  most  remarkable  species  are — the  Common  Albatross 
(Diomedea  exulans),  which  frequents  the  seas  washing  the 
south  of  Africa ;  the  Black-browed  Albatross  (D.  melanopfc/ys), 
which  also  inhabits  the  seas  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  the 
Brown  Albatross  (D.  fuliginosa] ;  the  Yellow  and  Black-beaked 
Albatross  (D.  chlororinches),  which,  like  the  preceding  species, 
inhabits  the  seas  of  the  South  Pole.* 

*  Captain  Cook  mentions  a  variety  frequently  captured  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Kamtschatka  and  the  Kurile  Islands. 


CHAPTEE  IV. 
GRALLATORES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 

THE  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  Waders  consists  in  the 
nakedness  and  length  of  their  tarsi,  which  sometimes  attain  to 
really  extraordinary  dimensions :  some  of  these  birds  look  as 
if  they  were  mounted  on  stilts.  This  peculiarity  of  conforma- 
tion is,  however,  well  adapted  to  their  modes  of  life.  They 
inhabit,  for  the  most  part,  river-banks,  lakes,  and  marshes,  in 
which  they  find  their  sustenance ;  consequently,  they  are  fear- 
less of  water  and  ooze.  The  Agami,  the  Bustard,  and  the  Ostrich, 
as  well  as  the  Emeu  and  other  Struthionida,  which  are  placed 
by  naturalists  with  this  family,  are  not  aquatic ;  they  inhabit  the 
interior  of  the  country,  and  are  either  herbivorous  or  granivorous. 

The  bills  of  these  birds  assume  very  various  forms.  They  are 
generally  long  ;  but,  according  to  the  species,  they  may  be  thick 
or  slender,  tapering  or  flat,  blunt  or  pointed,  strong  or  weak ;  and 
in  some  kinds,  such  as  the  Flamingo,  the  Spoonbill,  and  the 
Boatbill,  they  really  defy  all  description.  The  neck  is  always 
slender,  and  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  length  of  the  legs. 

Almost  all  the  Waders  are  birds  powerful  on  the  wing,  and 
twice  a  year  most  of  them  undertake  long  journeys,  which  they 
perform  in  large  flocks,  like  as  do  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans. 
There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this  rule.  Some  of  them 
— the  Bustard,  for  instance — move  through  the  air  with  diffi- 
culty, although  their  inferiority  in  this  respect  does  not  reach 
to  complete  inability ;  others,  as  the  Brevipennce,  are  absolutely 
unable  to  fly  at  all :  their  wings  being  altogether  rudimentary, 
are  only  useful  for  accelerating  their  pace  in  running,  and  thus 
assisted  they  are  remarkably  swill . 


316  GRALLATORES,  OB  WADING  BIRDS. 

The  nature  of  their  food  varies  with  the  form  and  strength  of 
the  bill  and  the  locality  they  inhabit ;  it  consists  generally  of 
fish,  small  batrachia,  mollusks,  worms,  and  insects  ;  sometimes  of 
small  mammalia  and  reptiles,  and  more  rarely  of  grasses  and 
seeds.  This  kind  of  sustenance  must  be  wonderfully  fitted  to 
develop  the  savoury  qualities  of  their  flesh,  for  it  is  among  this 
class  that  we  find  our  most  delicious  specimens  of  "game." 
The  mere  mention  of  the  Woodcock,  Snipe,  Plover,  Pewit,  and 
Bustard  is  sufficient  to  establish  their  claim  upon  the  epicure. 
Some  kinds,  which  are  utterly  devoid  of  any  culinary  properties, 
are  furnished  with  a  plumage  to  which  ladies  owe  some  of  their 
most  brilliant  adornments.  The  Ostrich  and  Marabout  feathers, 
and  those  of  the  Heron,  are  keenly  appreciated  by  many  fair 
ones,  whose  beauty  the  feathers  are  supposed  to  greatly  enhance. 
In  short,  this  order  of  birds  possesses  two  important  qualities — 
worthily  ministering  to  the  taste  of  the  most  fastidious  palate, 
and  handsomely  decorating  with  its  gorgeous  plumage  our  fashion- 
able and  wealthy  belles.  Gormandising  and  coquetry  alike  find 
satisfaction,  and  derive  from  these  birds  some  of  their  most  agree- 
able sensations.  If  they  had  the  additional  gift  of  melody  they 
might  lay  claim  to  perfection ;  however,  such  is  not  the  case,  as 
their  notes  are  shrill  and  discordant. 

The  Waders  are  monogamous  or  polygamous  according  to  their 
species ;  but  their  history  furnishes  us  with  some  touching 
instances  of  conjugal  attachment.  They  make  their  nests  either 
on  trees,  buildings,  or  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  sometimes  even  in 
the  middle  of  the  water,  among  the  reeds,  sedges,  and  other 
aquatic  plants.  In  general,  they  evince  but  little  care  in  the 
construction  of  their  progenies'  birth-place.  In  most  cases  they 
are  contented  to  collect  together  a  variety  of  substances  without 
much  discrimination  ;  sometimes  they  merely  scratch  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  in  which  they  deposit  their  eggs  without  any  further  care. 

The  Waders  are  usually  divided  into  six  great  families,  which 
are  again  divisible  into  many  genera.  Following  Cuvier's  classi- 
fication, with  some  slight  modification,  we  propose  arranging 
the  group  as  follows  : — I.  Palmidactyles,  II.  Macrodactyles, 
III.  Longirostrce,  IV.  Cultrirostrce,  V.  Pressirostrce,  and  YI.  Bre- 
vipennce. 


THE  FLAMINGO. 


317 


THE  PALMIDACTYLES 

Have  the  anterior  toes  united  by  a  wide  membrane  ;  the  hind  toe 
is  absent,  or  is  very  small ;  the  legs  are  very  long  and  smooth  ;  from 
their  webbed  feet  they  may  appear  to  belong  to  the  Palmipedes,  but 
the  arrangement  of  their  toes  is  altogether  different,  and  consti- 
tutes them  most  strikingly  characteristic  of  the  order  of  Waders. 

The  FLAMINGO  is  one  of  the  most  curious  of  the  tribe  of  Waders. 
The  most  fanciful  imagination  would  fail  in  picturing  to  itself 


Fig.  114. — The  American  Flamingoes  (P.  ruber,  Wilson). 

anything  more  odd  than  the  conformation  of  this  bird.  Ex- 
tremely long  legs,  supporting  quite  a  small  body ;  a  neck  corre- 
sponding in  length  with  the  legs ;  a  bill  rather  long  than 
otherwise,  sharply  curved  and  broken,  as  it  were,  in  the  middle, 
contrived  probably  to  discourage  those  who  are  tempted  to 
describe  it;  wings  of  a  middling  size,  and  a  sh6*rt  tail — such 
are  the  distinctive  features  of  this  remarkable-looking  bird.  The 
long  legs  terminate  in  equally  long  feet,  with  three  toes  in  front 


318  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

hind  toe  articulated  high  up  the  tarsus,  and  very  short ;  anterior 
toes  united  by  a  deeply-indented  membrane.  Add  to  this  a 
plumage  of  a  splendid  rose-colour,  warming  into  a  bright  red  on 
the  back  and  wings,  and  we  have  an  object  calculated  to  excite 
both  wonder  and  admiration. 

Ancient  writers,  struck  with  the  vivid  colouring  of  its  wings, 
gave  the  Flamingo  the  designation  of  Phcenicopterus  (fiery- 
winged)  :  this  term  was  popularised  in  France  by  the  word 
Flambant,  or  Flamant:  hence  the  name  by  which  the  bird  is 
universally  known. 

Flamingoes  inhabit  the  margins  of  lakes  and  ponds,  more 
rarely  the  sea-shore,  or  the  banks  of  rivers.  They  feed  on  worms, 
mollusks,  and  the  spawn  of  fishes,  which  they  capture  by  the 
following  stratagem :  they  place  their  long  neck  and  head  in 
such  a  position  that  the  upper  mandible  of  their  bill  is  the  lowest ; 
then,  by  stirring  the  mud  about  in  every  direction,  they  easily 
succeed  in  disturbing  the  small  fish  which  have  settled  in  it, 
and  afterwards  in  capturing  them.  They  also  use  their  feet  for 
working  the  ooze  and  uncovering  the  fry  and  spawn  to  which 
they  are  partial.  They  love  company,  and  live  in  flocks,  which 
are  subject  to  strict  discipline.  When  they  are  fishing  they 
draw  themselves  up  into  long,  straight,  and  regular  files,  placing 
a  sentinel,  whose  office  it  is  to  give  a  signal  of  alarm  on  the 
approach  of  danger.  If  any  cause  for  uneasiness  should  arise,  the 
scout-bird  gives  a  piercing  cry,  not  unlike  the  note  of  a  trumpet, 
and  the  whole  flock  immediately  take  wing  in  perfect  order. 

Flamingoes  are  very  shy  and  timid  birds,  and  shun  all  attempts 
of  man  to  approach  them ;  the  vicinity  of  animals,  however,  they 
disregard.  Any  one  who  is  acquainted  with  this  fact  can  take 
advantage  of  it  so  as  to  effect  slaughter  of  these  beautiful  creatures 
by  dressing  himself  up  in  the  skin  of  a  horse  or  an  ox.  Thus 
disguised,  the  sportsman  may  get  close  to  them  and  shoot  them 
down  at  his  ease.  So  long  as  their  enemy  is  invisible  they  remain 
immovable,  the  noise  of  the  gun  only  stupefying  them,  so  that 
they  refuse  to  leave,  although  their  companions  are  dropping 
down  dead  around  them. 

Some  authors  have  asserted  that  the  Flamingo  makes  use  of 
its  long  neck  as  a  third  leg,  walking  with  its  head  resting  on 


THE  FLAMINGO.  319 

the  ground  like  a  foot.  The  fact  that  has  doubtless  given  rise  to 
this  supposition  is  the  position  of  the  neck,  necessitated  by  its 
peculiar  method  of  seeking  food.  We  are  told,  it  is  true,  about 
a  Flamingo  reared  in  captivity  which,  being  accidentally  deprived 
of  one  of  its  limbs,  found  out  a  remedy  for  its  infirmity  by  walk- 
ing on  one  leg  and  helping  itself  along  by  means  of  its  bill,  using 
the  latter  as  a  crutch ;  the  master  of  the  bird,  noticing  this, 
fitted  it  with  a  wooden  leg,  which  it  used  with  the  greatest 
success.  But  this  story,  which  applies  very  well  to  a  domesticated 
bird  which  was  maimed,  and  consequently  under  peculiar  condi- 
tions, in  no  way  invalidates  our  former  observations. 

The  Flamingo  makes  itself  a  nest  which  is  as  original  as  its 
own  personal  appearance.  It  consists  of  a  truncated  cone,  about 
twenty  inches  in  height,  and  formed  of  mud  dried  in  the  sun. 
At  the  summit  of  this  little  hillock  it  hollows  out  a  shallow  cavity, 
in  which  the  female  lays  two  eggs,  rather  elongated  in  shape  and 
of  a  dead  white  colour.  When  she  is  incubating  them  she  sits 
astride  on  this  novel  description  of  throne,  with  her  legs  hang- 
ing down  on  each  side.  The  young  ones  run  about  very  soon 
after  they  are  hatched,  but  it  is  some  time  before  they  are  able 
to  fly — not,  indeed,  until  they  are  clothed  with  their  full  plumage. 
At  two  years  old  they  assume  the  more  brilliant  colours  of  the 
adult  bird. 

The  Flamingo  is  found  in  all  the  warm  and  temperate  regions 
of  the  globe.  On  certain  islands  off  the  American  continent  they 
exist  in  such  numbers,  that  navigators  have  given  them  the  name 
of  the  Flamingo  Islands.  In  the  Old  World  they  are  found  spread 
over  a  region  below  the  fortieth  degree  of  latitude,  principally  in 
Egypt  and  the  Nile  tributaries :  during  the  summer  they  seek  a  cooler 
climate,  and  they  are  then  seen  in  numerous  flocks  on  the  southern 
coasts  of  France.  The  height  of  these  magnificent  birds  reaches 
to  about  five  feet ;  when  they  are  flying,  in  the  peculiar  formation 
common  to  most  aquatic  birds,  with  the  neck  stretched  out  and 
the  legs  sticking  out  behind,  they  look,  in  the  clear  sky,  like 
gigantic  triangles  of  fire.  The  spectacle  they  then  present  is  at 
once  beautiful  and  wonderful. 

The  ancients  greedily  sought  after  the  flesh  of  the  Flamingo, 
which  they  regarded  as  the  most  choice  food.  The  tongue  espe- 


320  GEALLATOBES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

eially  was  thought  to  be  an  exquisite  dainty,  and  the  Emperor 
Heliogabalus  appreciated  it  so  highly  that  a  body  of  troops  was 
exclusively  employed  in  slaughtering  Phrenicopteri  to  satisfy  his 
gastronomical  tastes.  At  the  present  day  we  no  longer  eat  the 
bird ;  to  modern  palates  its  flesh  is  disagreeable  in  flavour,  and  it 
retains  a  marshy  smell  which  is  far  from  being  pleasant.  With 
regard  to  the  tongue,  the  Egyptians,  it  is  said,  are  content  with 
extracting  an  oil  from  it,  which  is  used  to  flavour  some  descrip- 
tions of  viands.  We  must  add,  in  order  to  complete  our  account 
of  the  Flamingo,  that  it  is  covered  with  down  like  a  Swan,  which 
is  employed  for  the  same  purposes,  and  that  its  thigh-bone  is 
used  in  some  countries  in  the  manufacture  of  flutes. 

The  AVOCET  (Fig.  1 15)  is  characterised  by  a  very  long  and  slender 
bill,  flexible,  and  curved  upwards ;  this  latter  peculiarity  has  pro- 


I'ig.  115.  -  Avocet  (Recurvirostra  avocetta). 

cured  for  it  the  name  of  Recurvirostra  (curved  beak).  It  uses 
this  strange  implement  to  rake  up  the  sand  and  mud  to  a  pretty 
good  depth,  in  order  to  catch  the  worms,  small  mollusks,  and  fish- 
spawn  which  constitute  its  chief  food.  Its  long  legs  enable 
it  to  travel  in  safety  over  swamps  and  lagoons  ;  it  also  swims  with 
great  ease.  It  may  often  be  seen  looking  for  its  food  in  the  very 
centre  of  lakes  and  ponds. 

The  Avocet  stands  about  twenty  inches  in  height,  although  its 
body  is  but  little  bigger  than  that  of  a  Pigeon.  It  is  a  pretty  bird, 
of  slender  make  ;  its  plumage  is  black  on  the  head  and  back,  and 
white  underneath.  It  is  to  be  met  with  on  both  the  Continents  ; 
the  European  species  is  common  in  Holland  and  on  the  French 
coast.  It  is  wild  and  shy  in  its  nature,  and  very  difficult  of 


THE  STILT  BIED. 


321 


approach.  It  is  clever  in  avoiding  snares  set  for  it  by  the 
fowler,  and  ingenious  in  escaping — either  by  flight  or  swimming 
— its  pursuers.  The  nest  of  the  Avocet  is  a  very  simple  struc- 
ture, generally  made  by  placing  a  few  blades  of  grass  in  a 
hole  in  the  sand.  Here  it  lays  two  or  three  eggs,  of  which  it  is 
frequently  robbed ;  for,  like  those  of  the  Plover  and  others,  its 
congeners,  they  are  regarded  as  great  delicacies  by  the  gourmand. 
The  flesh,  however,  is  not  considered  very  tempting. 

The  STILT  BIRDS  obtain  their  name  from  the  excessive  length 


Fig.  116. — Stilt  Bird  (C/turadrius  kunantu^us). 

of  their  legs,  which  are  also  so  slender  and  flexible  that  they 
can  be  bent  considerably  without  breaking.  Their  feet  are 
not  so  completely  webbed  as  the  species  we  have  just  men- 
tioned :  the  two  membranes  which  unite  the  toes  are  unequal 
in  size.  The  bill  is  long,  slender,  and  sharp,  like  that  of  the 
Avocet,  but  straight ;  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed ;  the  tail 
small.  They  are  about  the  size  of  the  Avocet,  and  some- 

Y 


322  GEALLATOEES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 

times  attain  the  height  of  six- and- twenty  inches.  They  possess 
considerable  powers  of  flight,  but  walk  with  difficulty  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  they  are  much  at  home  on  mud  or  in  marshes 
and  swamps,  in  which  they  bore  with  their  long  beaks  for  in- 
sects, larvas,  and  small  mollusks — dainties  to  which  they  are  very 
partial. 

They  are  dull,  shy  birds,  leading  a  solitary  life,  except  at  the 
breeding  season.  At  that  period  they  assemble  in  great  numbers, 
build  their  nests  in  the  marshes,  on  little  hillocks,  close  to  one 
another,  grass  being  the  principal  material  employed.  They 
lay  four  greenish- coloured  eggs,  with  ash-coloured  spots.  The 
male  bird  watches  while  the  females  are  sitting  ;  and  at  the  slightest 
alarm  he  raises  a  cry  which  startles  the  flock.  The  whole  colony 
may  then  be  seen  on  the  wing,  waiting  for  the  danger  to  pass 
before  settling  down. 

Stilt  Birds  are  uncommon  in  Western  Europe ;  they  are  prin- 
cipally to  be  met  with  in  the  Russian  and  Hungarian  marshes. 
During  the  summer  they  occasionally  visit  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  but  they  are  seldom  seen  on  those  of  the  Atlantic. 
By  sportsmen  they  are  little  thought  of. 


MACRODACTYLES. 

* 

The  birds  forming  the  family  of  Macrodactyles  (long-toed)  are 
remarkable  for  the  extreme  length  of  their  toes,  which  are  entirely 
separate,  or  but  slightly  webbed  ;  they  are  thus  enabled  to  walk 
on  the  weeds  growing  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  In  most 
instances  the  shortness  of  their  wings  limits  their  powers  of 
flight. 

This  order  includes  the  Water  Hens  (Gallinula) ,  the  Taleves, 
or  Sultana  Hens,  the  Rails  (Rallus),  the  Coots  (Fulica),  the 
Glareolee,  and  the  Kamichis. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  WAT  KB  HEN  are  a  short  and 
strong  bill,  thick  at  the  base  and  sharp  at  the  end,  with  a  pro- 
longation of  it  extending  up  the  forehead  ;  four  well- spread  toes, 
furnished  with  sharp  claws— the  three  front  toes  united  by  a 
small  and  cloven  membrane.  They  are  plentiful  in  some  parts  of 


THE  WATER  HEN.  323 

the  globe,  tlieir  favourite  haunts  being  marshy  places  and  the  banks 
of  lakes  or  rivers,  where  they  feed  on  worms,  insects,  mollusks, 
and  the  smaller  fish.  They  are  lively,  graceful,  and  ornamental 
birds.  During  the  day  they  love  to  lie  hid  among  the  reeds, 
shaded  from  the  sun's  rays  by  the  large  leaves  of  the  water-lily. 
They  emerge  from  their  hiding-places  at  evening  and  morning  in 
search  of  food. 

Although  incapable  of  either  fast  flight  or  rising  to  great 
elevations,  the  Water  Hen  shows  considerable  address  in  escaping 
from  the  sportsman's  gun.  When  pressed  very  closely,  they  take 
to  the  water,  in  which  they  are  expert  swimmers  and  divers  : 
under  the  water  they  go,  to  reappear  on  the  surface  many 
yards  away,  where  they  only  show  themselves  above  for  a  mo- 
ment to  breathe,  avoiding  flight  until  every  cause  of  fear  is 
removed. 

In  some  countries  they  remain  throughout  the  year  ;  in  others, 
on  the  contrary,  they  are  migratory.  When  the  latter  is  the 
case,  they  travel  sometimes  on  foot,  sometimes  by  swimming, 
and  sometimes  on  the  wing  ;  following  the  same  route,  how- 
ever, year  after  year,  and  always  returning  with  constancy  to  the 
spot  where  they  made  their  first  nest. 

The  eggs  are  seven  or  eight  in  number.  During  incubation 
the  male  and  female  occupy  the  nest  alternately.  Should  any 
intruder  alarm  them,  they  never  fail,  before  leaving  the  nest,  to 
cover  up  their  cherished  treasures  with  grass  or  other  material,  so 
as  to  keep  them  warm  and  hidden  from  the  voracity  of  their 
watchful  enemy,  the  Crow. 

Immediately  after  the  young  are  hatched  they  leave  the  nest 
to  follow  their  mother,  and  are  very  soon  able  to  supply  their 
own  wants.  Their  only  covering  at  first  is  a  scanty  and  coarse 
down ;  but  they  run  rapidly,  and  seem  almost  instinctively  to 
swim  and  dive  and  conceal  themselves  at  the  slightest  appearance 
of  danger.  Young  Water  Hens,  however,  are  exposed  to  acci- 
dent from  the  flooding  of  streams,  and  consequent  submersion 
of  the  nests ;  and  it  is  probably  by  way  of  compensation  for  this 
that  nature  has  made  them  so  prolific,  for  frequently  they  rear 
three  broods  per  annum. 

The  Common  Water  lien    (Fig.  117)  is  a  native  of  Europe ; 

Y2 


324 


GBALLA.TOBES,  OK  WADING  BIRDS. 


it  is  found  in  France,  England,  Italy,  Germany,  and  Holland.  The 
Slate-coloured  Water  Hen  is  a  native  of  Java. 


/!//",  &•','/•' \-   i0B&          ^- /$\\A±—  \  •.'*'  ••: 


Fig.  117. — Common  Water  Hen  (Gallimda  chloropus,  Svv.). 

The  Purple  "Water  Hen  (Porphyrio  hyacinthus,  Temminck),  or 
Sultana  Fowl   (Fig.  118),  is  peculiarly  characteristic  of  Macro- 


Fig.  118. — Sultana  Fowl  (Polio  sultana,  Sw.). 


dactyles,  and  might  be  denned  as  an  exaggeration  of  the  Water 
Hen.     Its  bill  is   thicker  and  more  robust,  the  frontal  plate  on 


RAILS.  325 

the  forehead  is  more  extended,  the  toes  are  longer,  but  its  habits 
are  very  nearly  the  same.  It  is,  however,  less  exclusively  aquatic, 
and  its  favourite  food  is  the  seeds  of  the  cereals  and  aquatic 
plants,  and  fruits  :  it  occasionally,  however,  feeds  on  mollusks  and 
small  fishes.  When  eating,  it  stands  on  one  foot,  and  uses  the 
other  as  a  hand  in  order  to  convey  the  food  to  its  beak. 

The  body  of  this  magnificent  bird  is  of  an  indigo-blue  colour, 
the  beak  and  feet  being  rose-colour.  The  ancients,  who  were 
acquainted  with  it,  and  were  accustomed  to  rear  it  in  a  domes- 
ticated state,  gave  it  the  name  of  Porphyrio  (purple  coloured)  on 
account  of  its  colour.  If  it  could  be  acclimatised,  it  would  be  a 
valuable  addition  to  our  ornamental  grounds. 

There  are  several  species  of  the  Sultana  Fowl,  differing  more 
or  less  from  one  another.  They  inhabit  the  warmer  regions  of 
the  Old  World.  The  Purple  Water  Hen  is  found  in  Greece,  Asia 
Minor,  Africa,  and  the  South  of  Europe ;  generally,  it  is  about 
the  size  of  the  ordinary  Domestic  Fowl. 

RAILS  (Rallus)  are  characterised  by  a  slender,  tapering,  slightly- 


lig.  119.— Land  Hail  (Rallus  crex,  Linn.). 

arched  beak,  longer  than  the  head ;  elongated  tarsi,  terminating 
in  slender  toes,  much  compressed  and  completely  separate,  and  not 
marginate ;  wings  middle-sized  ;  tail  short. 

Their  habits  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Water 
Hen.  Like  the  latter,  they  are  timid,  and  hide  themselves  all  day 
in  the  rushes,  underwood,  or  grass  of  the  marshes  and  meadows 
they  inhabit.  They  make  use  of  the  holes  hollowed  out  by  water- 
rats,  in  which  they  take  refuge  when  hard  pressed.  Little  thickets 


32G  GRALLATORES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 

bordering  brooks  and  small  rivers  are  localities  to  which  they 
are  peculiarly  partial,  inasmuch  as  they  assist  ready  conceal- 
ment from  their  enemies.  Their  flight  is  slow  and  heavy,  and  is 
generally  directed  in  a  straight  line,  but  little  elevated  above  the 
ground.  Eunnmg,  however,  is  the  means  they  usually  adopt  for 
escaping  their  pursuers,  and  by  their  numberless  turns  and  wind- 
ings they  often  succeed.  But  in  some  cases  their  efforts  are  of 
such  a  feeble  character  that  dogs  catch  them  without  difficulty, 
and  even  the  sportsman  has  been  known  to  capture  one  with  his 
hands. 

Hails  are  solitary,  differing  in  this  from  the  majority  of 
migratory  birds,  which  generally  assemble  in  flocks  previous  to 
undertaking  long  journeys. 

The  nest  is  roughly  constructed  among  the  reeds  and  flags  of 
some  quiet  pond  or  river  bank.  The  females  lay  from  six  to  eight 
eggs.  The  young  ones  run  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  and  grow 
very  rapidly.  Their  favourite  food  is  worms,  insects,  and  shrimps, 
but  they  do  not  reject  wild  corn  and  other  seeds.  Their  flesh 
is  considered  delicate,  and  is  certainly  superior  to  that  of  the 
Water  Hen :  in  the  autumn  it  acquires  an  exquisite  flavour 
in  the  estimation  of  French  gourmands. 

Rails  are  very  common  in  France.  The  species  most  abun- 
dant there  is  the  Land  Rail,  which  is  thus  named  from  its  habits 
being  more  terrestrial  than  aquatic;  besides,  it  gives  a  very 
decided  preference  for  fields,  copses,  heaths,  and  meadows.  It  is 
vulgarly  called  the  "King  of  the  Quails/'  probably  from  frequent- 
ing the  same  localities.  They  do  not  acquire  their  most  perfect 
condition  till  the  end  of  summer ;  this,  therefore,  is  the  proper 
time  to  kill  them.  Twenty  species  of  Rails  are  enumerated,  which 
are  spread  over  the  various  countries  of  the  globe.  However,  the 
characteristic  features  of  all  are  nearly  alike. 

The  COOT  (Fulica)  has  a  bill  of  moderate  size,  stout,  tapering, 
much  depressed,  with  a  well-developed  frontal  plate  ;  the  toes  are 
slender,  and  edged  with  a  broad,  scalloped  membrane.  Their 
plumage  is  glossy,  soft,  full,  and  blended,  and  impervious  to 
water. 

Coots  are  essentially  aquatic,  frequenting  lakes,  pools,  and 
marshes,  and  sometimes  the  shores  of  estuaries,  bays,  and  gulfs. 


COOTS.  327 

Like  the  Water  Hen  and  the  Rail,  their  life  is  almost  nocturnal. 
During  the  daytime  they  hide  themselves  amid  the  reeds  and  flags, 
from  which  they  do  not  emerge  until  the  evening,  when  hunger 
forces  them  to  seek  their  food.  This  consists  of  worms,  small 
fishes,  and  the  young  shoots  of  aquatic  plants.  Coots  but  rarely 
visit  the  dry  fields,  where  they  move  about  with  great  difficulty ; 
on  the  other  hand,  they  swim  and  dive  with  graceful  ease.  Their 
flight  is  somewhat  less  feeble  than  that  of  the  Hails ;  still  it  is 
far  from  strong. 

Coots  herd  together  in  flocks  ;  they  make  their  nests  on  the 
reeds  in  the  water,  and  lay  from  eight  to  fourteen  eggs.  The 
young  ones  take  to  the  water  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  but  they 


\ 


Fig.  120.— The  Bald  Coot  (Fulica  atra,  Sw.). 

often  fall  a  prey  to  the  Marsh  Harrier.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  whole  brood  is  destroyed  in  this  way  :  when  such  is 
the  case  the  female  lays  a  second  batch  of  eggs,  which  she  hides 
in  the  most  retired  spot,  less  accessible  to  the  enemies  of  her 
race. 

The  Coot  is  found  in  every  country  in  Europe,  in  North 
America,  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa.  Its  flesh,  which  is  white  and 
delicate  in  appearance,  is  usually  very  fat,  but  has  a  disagreeable 


328 


GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


taste  and  marsh-like  odour.  Three  species  are  known,  only  one 
of  which  is  found  in  this  country — namely,  the  Bald  Coot  (Fulica 
atra),  the  Foulque  macrouleof  French  naturalists,  very  common  in 
the  north  of  France,  and  all  quarters  of  the  Old  and  New  World  ; 
the  Crested  Coot  (F.  cristata),  a  native  of  Madagascar,  but  some- 
times a  visitor  to  the  South  of  Europe,  and  differing  very  little 
from  the  Common  Coot,  but  distinguished  from  it  by  the  red  and 
prominent  bony  protuberances  at  the  top  of  the  frontal  plate  ;  and 
the  Blue  Coot,  which  is  described  as  an  inhabitant  of  Portugal. 

The  GLAREOLA,  or  SEA  PARTRIDGE  ( Glareola  perdix),  has  the  bill 
short  and  curved,  the  tarsi  long  and  slender,  the  middle  toe 
joined  to  the  outer  by  a  small  membrane,  the  wings  long  and 


Fig.  121. — Collared  Glareola  (Hirundo  prantincola,  Linn.). 

pointed,  the  tail  forked.  They  live  in  flocks  on  the  banks  of 
the  Danube,  the  Yolga,  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  and 
Caspian  Seas.  They  feed  on  worms,  water-insects,  and  especially 
locusts,  which  they  catch  on  the  wing. 

The   JACANAS   or   PARR^E  are  characterised  by  a  straight  and 


JACANAS. 


329 


middle-sized  bill ;  legs  armed  with  pointed  spurs ;  toes  furnished 
with  long  and  sharp-pointed  claws,  and  a  back  toe  longer  even 
than  the  front  ones.  These  birds  inhabit  Asia,  Africa,  and  South 
America.  In  Brazil  they  are  called  "  Surgeon-birds,"  from  the 
resemblance  the  claw  on  their  back  toe  bears  to  a  lancet.  They 
frequent  swamps,  lagoons,  and  the  margins  of  pools.  They 
walk  on  the  wide- spreading  leaves  of  tropical  aquatic  plants 
with  perfect  ease,  although  they  swim  very  imperfectly  :  some 
naturalists,  indeed,  declare  that  they  cannot  swim  at  all,  and 


y 


Fig.  122. — Jacana  (Parra  africana,  Sw.)- 


they  are  probably  justified  in  this  opinion  by  the  appearance  of 
the  bird,  which  seems  to  have  few  characteristics  of  an  aquatic 
species.  Their  flight  is  rapid,  but  not  very  high. 

The  Jacanas  live  in  pairs.  They  are  exceedingly  numerous, 
and  perfectly  fearless  of  man.  They  are  restless  and  quarrelsome 
in  their  nature,  frequently  engaging  in  conflict  with  other  birds, 
when  they  make  good  use  of  their  spurs.  They  will  defend 
their  offspring  with  daring  courage  even  against  man  himself, 
and  will  sacrifice  their  lives  without  hesitation  in  their  defence. 
The  male  and  the  female  evince  the  tenderest  mutual  attach- 
ment ;  once  united,  they  part  no  more  during  life.  They  make 
their  nest  in  a  clump  of  flags  or  other  aquatic  plants,  in  which  the 


330 


GRALLATOEES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 


female  lays  four  or  five  eggs,  on  which  she  sits  during  the  night 
only,  the  high  temperature  produced  by  a  tropical  sun  supplying 
the  necessary  warmth.  As  soon  as  hatched  the  young  ones  leave 
the  nest,  and  are  able  to  follow  their  parents  about. 


m 


Fig.  123. — Horned  Screamer  or  Kamichi  (Pulamedea  connita,  Sw.). 

The  Common  Jacana  is  black,  with  neck  and  shoulders  of  a 
reddish  brown,  and  green  wing- feathers. 

In  the  KAMICHI,  or  HORNED  SCREAMER  (Palamedea  cornuta),  the 
beak  is  shorter  than  the  head,  slightly  compressed,  and  bent  at  the 
point;  the  wings  are  wide-spreading,  and  provided  with  strong 
spurs  on  the  shoulders  ;  the  toes  are  separated,  and  furnished  with 
long,  stout,  and  pointed  claws.  Their  plumage  is  of  a  blackish 


THE  KAMICIII. 


331 


hue.  Their  size  is  about  that  of  a  Turkey.  They  are  South 
American  birds.  Their  favourite  haunts  are  moist,  marshy 
localities,  inundated  savannahs,  or  the  oozy  banks  of  shallow 
streams.  Although  they  do  not  swim,  they  venture  on  the 
water  in  search  of  aquatic  plants  and  their  seeds.  Some  natu- 
ralists, founding  their  belief  on  the  presence  of  spurs  with  which 


Fig.  124.— Faithful  Kamiohi  (Palamedea  cristuta,  Sw.). 


this  bird  is  provided,  assert  that  it  attacks  small  reptiles  and 
destroys  them.  This  is  now  acknowledged  to  be  an  error. 
These  birds  live  isolated,  in  pairs  ;  they  are  mild  and  peaceful  in 
their  nature,  for  the  breeding  season  is  the  only  time  when  they 
seem  at  all  disposed  to  use  their  weapons.  At  this  period 
the  cocks  engage  in  deadly  conflict  to  gain  possession  of  some 
favourite  mate.  The  union  once  formed,  it  is  indissoluble,  and 
only  terminates  with  the  death  of  one  of  them.  It  is  even 
asserted  that  the  survivor  exhibits  signs  of  great  affliction,  linger- 


332  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

ing  for  days  near  the  spot  where  cruel  fate  had  severed  him  by 
death  from  the  loved  one. 

The  Palamedea  has  many  points  of  resemblance  to  the  Galli- 
naceous order  :  its  comparatively  short  and  thick  tarsi,  its  general 
make  and  gait,  its  habits  of  life  and  inoffensive  nature,  all  remind 
us  of  the  above-named  tribe.  There  is,  therefore,  no  reason  for 
surprise  in  the  fact  that  man  has  succeeded  in  domesticating  them, 
and  even  in  turning  them  into  useful  assistants. 

The  Horned  Kamichi  is  thus  named  on  account  of  having  on 
its  head  a  horn-like  tuft,  which  is  straight,  thin,  and  movable, 
about  three  inches  long. 

The  Chaja,  or  Faithful  Kamichi,  has,  instead  of  the  horn,  a 
crest  of  feathers  arranged  in  a  circle  on  the  back  of  its  head. 
This  species  is  susceptible  of  education.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and 
becomes  very  friendly  with  man,  proving  itself  an  active,  intelli- 
gent, and  devoted  servant.  It  becomes  at  once  the  companion 
and  protector  of  the  other  denizens  of  the  poultry-yard — so 
much  so,  that  in  Brazil  and  Paraguay,  where  it  is  known  solely 
as  the  Chaja,  the  inhabitants  have  no  hesitation  in  confiding 
to  its  charge  the  care  of  their  flocks  of  poultry.  The  Chaja 
accompanies  them  into  the  fields  in  the  morning,  and  at  night- 
fall conducts  them  back  to  their  roosting-places.  Should  any 
bird  of  prey  come  near,  the  guardian  spreads  out  its  broad  wings, 
darts  upon  the  intruder,  and  soon  makes  him  feel  what  a  love 
of  justice  can  do  when  aided  by  four  stout  spurs. 


LONGIROSTRES  (Cuvier). 

The  birds  composing  this  family  are  characterised  by  a  long 
and  flexible  bill,  which  is  fitted  for  little  else  except  boring  in 
mud  and  soft  ground.  They  are  indifferently  shore  or  marsh 
birds.  Among  them  are  comprised  the  Sandpipers,  Turnstones, 
Ruffs,  Knots,  Grodwits,  Woodcocks,  Snipes,  Curlews,  and  Ibis. 

The  SANDPIPERS  have  a  long,  straight,  thin  bill,  flexible  at  the 
base,  but  firmer  towards  the  point;  the  tarsi  are  slender  and 
elongated ;  the  wings  very  pointed  ;  the  feet  half  webbed,  the  back 
toe  short,  and  touching  the  ground  with  the  point  only.  They 


SANDPIPEES. 


333 


live  in  small  flocks  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  on  the  sea-coast. 
Some  species  frequent  marshy  localities,  others  dry  and  sandy 
districts.  Their  food  is  chiefly  worms,  insects,  fish-spawn,  and 
sometimes  even  small  fry  and  Crustacea.  Their  habits  are  peace- 
able, and  their  movements  easy  and  graceful.  They  may  be 
noticed  on  the  strands  and  banks  of  our  rivers,  incessantly  on 
the  move,  running,  swimming,  and  diving,  all  of  which  they  per- 
form with  equal  ease.  They  are  gifted  with  a  keen  sight,  for 
not  even  the  smallest  insect  in  its  vicinity  can  escape  its  vision. 
The  moment  one  of  them  descries  a  prey,  the  whole  flock  vie 
with  each  other  to  obtain  possession  of  it. 

The  Sandpipers  are  natives  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  Old  and 


Fig.  125.— Kedshank  (Totanus  stagnatili,  Teium.). 

New  World ;  they  visit  France  twice  a  year — in  spring  and 
autumn.  They  breed  in  the  North,  and  lay  from  three  to  five 
eggs.  The  extreme  delicacy  of  their  flesh  causes  them  to  be  much 
sought  after  by  epicures  ;  they  are,  therefore,  captured  in  every 
possible  way.  Extinction  will  probably  be  the  result.  To  gratify 
the  tastes  of  the  gourmand  and  the  bloodthirsty  instincts  of  the 
poacher,  the  lovers  of  nature  are,  forsooth,  to  be  deprived  of  one 
of  the  most  innocent  and  beautiful  families  of  birds. 

In  France  seven  species  of  Sandpipers  are  known,  varying  in 


334 


GRALLATORES,  OE  WADING  BIRDS. 


size  from  that  of  the  Sparrow  to  that  of  the  Thrush.  They  are  as 
follows  : — the  Brown  Sandpiper,  called  also  the  Harlequin  Sand- 
piper (Totanus  fuscus),  the  Greenshank  (Totanus  glottis),  the 
Redshank  (Totanus  caledris),  Fig.  125 ;  the  Pond  Sandpiper  ; 
the  Wood  Sandpiper  (Totanus  glareola),  the  Green  Sandpiper 
(Totanus  ackropus),  the  Common  Sandpiper  (Totanus  hypoleucos). 
The  last  kind  is  the  smallest,  and  also  the  most  prized. 

The  TURNSTONES  (Strepsila)  inhabit  the  sea-coasts  of  both  con- 
tinents. A  single  known  species  alone  has  been  traced  over  most 
parts  of  Europe,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  various  parts  of 
Asia,  Australia,  and  North  America.  It  owes  its  name  to  the 
peculiar  method  it  adopts  to  find  its  food.  This  habit  consists  of 


Fig.  126. — Turnstone  (Cinclus  mterpres,  G.  R.  Gray). 

lifting  up  the  pebbles  and  shingles  which  lie  spread  over  its 
domain,  the  sea- shore,  in  order  to  discover  the  worms,  Crustacea, 
and  insects  concealed  underneath.  For  this  purpose  it  is  provided 
with  a  bill  of  medium  length,  tapering,  pointed,  and  hard,  which 
it  uses  adroitly  as  a  lever.  It  lives  a  solitary  life,  and  does  not 
even  congregate  with  its  own  species  for  the  purpose  of  migra- 
tion, but  travels  alone.  Only  in  the  North,  whither  it  repairs 
to  breed,  does  it  manifest  any  approach  to  sociability.  The 
female  lays  three  or  four  rather  large  eggs  of  an  ashy-grey 


336  GBALLATORES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

colour ;  these  are  deposited  in  the  bottom  of  a  hole  dug  in  the 
sand  on  the  shore.  The  young  ones  are  very  precocious,  for 
even  on  leaving  the  shell  they  run  about  with  their  parents  to 
seek  their  sustenance. 

The  only  species  of  this  genus,  the  Einged  Turnstone,  Strepsila 
interpres  (Fig.  126),  is  a  bird  of  passage  in  France  and  England. 
Its  flesh  is  not  without  relish,  but  by  no  means  equal  to  that  of 
the  Plover. 

The  RUFF  (Machetes  pugnax,  Temminck)  commends  itself  to 
the  attention  of  the  observer  by  the  sudden  metamorphosis  which 
seems  to  revolutionise  its  entire  nature,  in  the  early  days  of 
May,  at  the  first  dawning  of  that  charming  month  when  all 
nature  appears  to  expand  and  array  itself  in  every  kind  of 
splendour,  the  better  to  render  homage  to  the  Creator.  At  this 
season  the  plumage  of  the  Ruff,  which  has  hitherto  been  grave  and 
almost  sombre,  undergoes  a  most  brilliant  transformation.  It 
would  strike  the  observer  as  if  the  agitation  of  love  had  the 
effect  of  totally  changing  its  plumage  from  one  altogether  devoid 
of  display  to  the  most  brilliant  costume  imaginable,  for  its  neck 
is  now  wreathed  with  a  glittering  collar,  which  extends  by  degrees 
over  shoulders  and  breast.  On  the  top  of  its  head,  to  the  right 
and  left,  two  graceful  plumes  come  forth,  which  vastly  improve 
its  looks,  and  contribute  in  no  small  degree  to  the  impres- 
siveness  of  its  demeanour.  Brilliant  hues  of  yellow,  white, 
and  black,  arranged  in  a  hundred  ever- varying  shades,  com- 
bine to  improve  their  plumage,  making  them  most  attractive  to 
look  at. 

This  physical  transformation  produces  a  change  in  the  temper 
of  the  bird.  Puffed  up  with  pride,  and  elated  at  his  own  personal 
magnificence,  our  hero  suddenly  finds  himself  subject  to  the  most 
warlike  feelings. 

But  what  is  this  object  which  catches  his  sight  ?  It  is  another 
Ruff — a  rival.  Without  hesitation  he  rushes  immediately  to  meet 
the  stranger,  who,  nothing  loath,  charges  in  return  at  the  top  of  his 
speed.  With  stretched- out  beak  and  crest  erect,  the  two  adversaries 
impetuously  close.  A  furious  duel  takes  place,  carried  on  in  the  sight 
of  the  feebler  sex,  who  pass  their  opinion  on  the  blows  which  are 
given  and  received,  praise  or  blame  them,  and,  by  a  cry  at  judicious 


I 


338  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

* 

movements,  reanimate  the  failing  ardour  of  the  gallant  com- 
batants. Fierce  blows  with  the  beak  follow  one  another  in 
quick  succession,  blood  soon  flows,  and  the  arena  is  reddened 
around  them,  until  at  last  the  two  weary  champions  roll  over 
m  the  dust,  and  lie  side  by  side  completely  exhausted.  During 
two  or  three  months  these  duels  are  of  frequent  occurrence, 
and  cannot  fail  to  leave  numerous  gaps  in  the  ranks  of  the 
species. 

In  the  beginning  of  August  their  rich  vestments  gradually 
disappear,  and  the  warlike  fever  as  rapidly  abates.  The  Ruff 
now  becomes  a  commonplace  bird  of  peaceful  habits,  with  no 
other  occupation  but  that  of  searching  for  worms  and  insects 
on  the  shores  of  the  ocean.  Then  is  the  time  when  they  fall 
under  the  sportsman's  gun  and  into  the  snares  of  the  bird- 
catcher. 

The  Ruff  soon  gets  accustomed  to  living  in  captivity.  In 
England,  where  they  were  formerly  very  numerous,  and  in 
Holland,  where  they  are  probably  so  still,  Ruffs  are  reared 
and  fattened  for  the  table.  They  must,  however,  be  kept  in  the 
dark  during  the  breeding  season,  to  prevent  them  from  giving 
way  to  their  turbulent  tempers,  which  blaze  out  on  the  slightest 
excitement  under  the  influence  of  light. 

These  birds  inhabit  the  northern  and  temperate  countries  of 
Europe  and  Asia  :  in  France  they  are  common  enough  on  the 
north  and  north-west  coast  of  the  Channel.  In  spring  they 
fix  their  abode  in  moist  and  marshy  meadows,  where  they  lay 
their  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  of  a  greenish- grey  hue, 
speckled  with  small  brown  spots.  In  the  autumn  they  spread 
themselves  along  the  sea- shore.  Their  size  nearly  equals  that  of 
the  largest  of  the  Sandpipers. 

The  KNOT  (Tringa,  Linn.)  has  a  bill  as  long  as  the  head;  the 
toes  divided,  the  back  toe  short ;  the  wings  pointed ;  a  shape 
rather  heavy  and  thick- set.  They  frequent  the  sea- shore  and 
salt  marshes,  and,  except  by  accident,  never  venture  far  inland. 
They  are  natives  of  the  Arctic  Polar  Circle,  and  visit  our  coasts 
in  the  spring  and  autumn.  They  lay  their  eggs,  four  or  five 
in  number,  in  their  northern  retreats. 


THE  WOODCOCK.  339 

The  Sanderlings  ( Caledris)  and  the  Curlews  (Numenius,  Latham) 
are  species  closely  allied  to  the  Knots,  but  differing  in  their  habits 
and  physical  characteristics.  They  visit  all  the  coasts  of  Europe 
in  small  flocks,  incessantly  on  the  move.  Even  an  abundance  of 
food  does  not  suffice  to  keep  them  very  long  in  the  same  locality  : 
motion  seems  the  law  of  their  existence. 

The  WOODCOCK  (Scolopax  rusticola)  has  a  very  long,  straight, 
and  slender  bill ;  the  head  flattened ;  the  tarsi  short ;  and  the  legs 
covered  with  feathers.  They  live  in  the  woods,  and  do  not  frequent 
the  sea-shore  or  river-banks.  They  differ  from  the  Snipes  in 
haying  the  body  fuller,  the  tibiae  feathered  at  the  joint,  the  tarsi 
shorter,  the  wings  broader,  and  the  bill  firmer  (Fig.  129).  They 


Fig.  129. — Common  Woodcock  (Scolopax  rusticola,  Teniin.). 

are  also  larger  in  size.  In  points  they  differ  from  most  of  the 
Grallae;  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  it  has  been  thought  right  to 
place  them  among  this  order. 

The  Woodcock  inhabits,  during  the  summer,  the  lofty,  wooded 
mountain-ranges  of  Central  and  Northern  Europe.  Driven  away 
by  the  severe  cold,  they  descend  into  the  plains,  and  reach  France 
and  England  about  the  month  of  November.  They  are  shy,  timid 
birds,  and  conceal  themselves  all  day  long  in  the  depths  of  the 
most  retired  woods,  busying  themselves  in  turning  over  the  leaves 
with  their  bills  to  catch  worms  and  grubs,  which  form  their 


340 


GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


food.  The  brightness  of  daylight  prevents  their  seeing  clearly, 
and  they  do  not  possess  full  power  of  their  visual  faculties  until 
evening,  when  they  emerge  from  their  retreats,  and  seek  their 
sustenance  in  the  cultivated  fields,  damp  meadows,  or  in  the 
vicinity  of  springs. 

Woodcocks  do  not  all  migrate,  but  remain  throughout  the  year 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  springs  which  the  most  bitter  cold  cannot 
freeze.  Solitary  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  they  pair 
in  spring ;  building  their  nest  on  the  ground  with  grass  and 
roots,  placing  it  close  to  the  trunk  of  some  tree  (the  Scotch  fir 
by  preference,  it  is  said),  or  in  a  holly-bush.  The  female  lays 


iig.  lau.-  Woodcocks  (White  and  Isabella-coloured). 


four  or  five  oval  eggs,  rather  larger  than  those  of  a  Pigeon.  The 
young  ones  run  about  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched  :  the  parent 
birds  guard  them  with  careful  solicitude,  and  manifest  on  all  occa- 
sions the  greatest  love  of  their  offspring.  If  any  danger  threatens, 
the  old  birds  catch  up  their  young,  holding  them  under  their 
necks  by  means  of  their  beaks,  and  afterwards  transferring  them 
to  a  place  of  safety. 

These  birds  seem  always  to  feel  an  affection  for  places  they 
have  once  frequented,  and  love  to  return  to  them  ;  the  fol- 
lowing fact,  at  least,  would  lead  one  to  think  so.  A  game- 
keeper, having  snared  a  Woodcock,  gave  it  its  liberty  after 


THE  WOODCOCK.  341 

fastening  a  copper  ring  to  its  leg.  The  following  year  he  per- 
fectly recognised,  by  the  help  of  this  mark,  the  Woodcock  which 
had  formerly  been  his  captive ;  it  had  again  visited  its  old 
haunts. 

During  ten  months  of  the  year  the  Woodcock  is  mute ;  when 
the  early  leaves  begin  to  bud  it  utters  a  feeble  cry—pitt-pitt-corr  ! 
— to  attract  a  mate. 

The  plumage  of  the  Woodcock  is  remarkable  for  the  harmony 
of  its  shades ;  it  is  a  happy  mixture  of  brown,  russet,  grey,  black, 
and  white.  It  is  not  an  unusual  thing  to  meet  with  Woodcocks 
entirely  of  the  latter ;  they  are  the  albinos  of  their  kind.  Others 
are  arrayed  in  an  Isabelle-coloured  plumage  (Fig.  130)  ;  but 
white,  with  grey  or  brown  mottlings,  are  their  principal  pecu- 
liarities of  plumage. 

The  Woodcock  is  very  clean  in  its  habits  :  nothing  prevents 
it  pluming  and  dressing  its  feathers  twice  a  day.  At  morning 
and  evening  they  can  be  seen  bending  their  course  in  rapid  flight 
towards  rivulets  or  springs  to  bore  for  insects,  quench  their  thirst, 
and  arrange  their  toilette. 

This  bird  is  found  in  almost  all  the  departments  in  France,  but 
principally  in  1'Ain  and  1'Isere.  We  need  hardly  say  that  they 
are  sought  after  with  an  eagerness  that  no  obstacle  seems  to  dis- 
courage. One  can  scarcely  imagine  the  pitch  of  enthusiasm  some 
of  our  sportsmen  possess  for  pursuit  of  the  Woodcock.  They 
will  walk  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  in  the  mud,  leave  shreds  of 
their  garments  hanging  on  every  bush  and  bramble  they  pass, 
exercise  all  their  ingenuity  in  manoauvring  and  cunning,  and,  as 
a  recompense  for  all  these  exertions,  not  discouraged,  perhaps  find 
"the  bird  flown."  This  is  a  short  compendium  of  the  results 
often  enjoyed  in  seeking  this  woodland  denizen. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  pursuing  these  birds  is,  first,  to  find  them, 
and  then  to  make  them  flush.  Hidden  motionless  and  mute  in 
the  thickest  bushes,  they  emit  but  very  little  scent  to  catch  the 
nose  of  the  dog,  which  ranges  about  in  every  direction,  dis- 
heartened with  such  laborious  and  often  unprofitable  work.  After 
a  long  trial  of  patience  and  perseverance,  scratched  and  torn  by 
thorns  and  briers,  the  slightest  taint  on  the  air  tells  the  secret — 


• ;;i T  '  ;,    • 


THE  SNIPE,  343 

the  dog  draws.  As  soon  as  the  sportsman  sees  or  knows  that 
his  dog  is  "pointing"  at  the  game,  he  advances  quietly,  and 
judging  as  well  as  he  can  of  the  locality  of  the  bird,  places  him- 
self in  the  best  position  for  firing  when  it  flushes  (Fig.  131).  If 
he  misses  his  aim,  all  he  has  to  do  is  to  follow  up,  for  it  is  likely 
enough  to  drop  again  only  a  short  distance  on0.  Still  the  labour 
to  force  the  game  to  take  wing  a  second  time  is  not  less  arduous 
than  heretofore.  Both  man  and  dog  are  often  put  on  the  wrong 
scent  by  the  turns,  twists,  and  circuits  of  their  tracks,  and  all  the 
other  tricks  of  concealment  with  which  this  bird  is  familiar.  If  at 
last  the  Woodcock  succumbs,  it  will  not  be  till  it  has  thoroughly 
fatigued  its  persecutors. 

In  Brittany,  some  years  ago,  Woodcocks  were  so  common 
that  the  inhabitants  were  in  the  habit  of  catching  them  with 
nets  in  the  following  singular  way: — Two  men  went  out  toge- 
ther at  night,  one  carrying  a  lantern,  the  other  a  small  net 
fastened  at  the  end  of  a  long  stick.  They  proceeded  to  those 
parts  of  the  woods  where  deer  had  been  grazing,  which  places 
are  always  favourite  haunts  of  the  Woodcocks  on  account  of 
their  finding  worms  and  insects  among  their  droppings.  The 
rays  of  light  from  the  lantern  were  suddenly  thrown  on  the  birds 
while  feeding;  the  latter,  dazzled  with  the  brilliancy,  allowed 
themselves  to  be  entangled  in  the  meshes  of  the  net  before  they 
thought  of  flight. 

A  similar  method  to  the  above  is  practised  by  the  negroes  on 
the  Southern  plantations  of  the  United  States,  with  this  difference 
— instead  of  a  net,  only  a  club  is  used  for  their  destruction. 
Often  the  slaughter  of  a  successful  night  amounts  to  hundreds. 
The  American  Woodcock  is  scarcely  as  large  as  the  European 
bird,  nor  is  their  colour  the  same. 

The  Woodcock  constitutes  a  delicious  article  of  food  from  its 
exquisite  flavour  and  piquancy :  it  in  consequence  holds  the  highest 
rank  among  game  in  the  eyes  of  the  epicure. 

The  SNIPE  much  resembles  the  Woodcock,  but  is  smaller,  with 
longer  tarsi.  It  is  also  different  in  its  habits.  It  haunts  marshes 
and  fens,  feeding  on  grubs,  and  sometimes  even  on  aquatic 
plants.  It  travels  during  the  night  as  well  as  in  the  day, 


344  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

generally   preferring   stormy,  damp  weather   for   performing  its 
migrations. 

The  Snipe  is  found  in  all  latitudes  in  every  part  of  the 
globe.  Some  remain  the  year  round  in  France  and  Ireland. 
They  make  their  nests  among  reeds  in  muddy,  boggy  places, 
difficult  of  access  to  both  man  and  beast,  in  which  they  lay 
four  or  five  eggs.  The  young  ones  leave  the  nest  as  soon  as 
they  are  hatched,  and  are  fed  by  their  parents  for  some  time, 


Fig.  132. — 1.  Jack  Snipe.    2.  Common  Snipe  (Scolopax  gallinula,  Scolopax  gallinago,  Linn.). 

the  want  of  solidity  in  their  bills  not  permitting  them  to  bore  for 
their  own  food. 

The  Snipe  does  not  live  so  solitary  a  life  as  the  Woodcock  ;  it 
is  occasionally  seen  in  wisps  or  flocks.  When  flushed  they  utter 
a  shrill  cry,  which  is  easily  recognised.  They  visit  us  in  autumn, 
coming  from  the  marshes  of  Poland  and  Hungary,  whither  they 
return  again  in  the  spring.  The  most  common  species  are  the 
Common  Snipe  (Scolopax  gallinago,  Fig.  132,  2),  the  Great  Snipe 
(S.  major),  the  Jack  Snipe  (S.  gallinula ,  Fig.  132,  1),  Sabine 
Snipe  (8.  Sabini),  and  the  American  variety  (S.  Wilsonii). 

The  Common  Snipe  is  no  bigger  than  a  Thrush,  and  has  a  bill 
longer  in  proportion  than  the  Woodcock.  It  has  on  the  head 


THE  GODWIT.  345 

two  longitudinal  black  stripes ;  the  neck  and  shoulders  are 
blackish,  and  the  breast  white.  It  is  persecuted  by  some  of  the 
small  birds  of  prey,  such  as  the  Merlin,  the  Hobby,  and  the 
Kestrel.  But,  among  all  its  enemies,  man  is  most  to  be  dreaded  ; 
he  looks  upon  it  as  nearly  equal  to  the  Woodcock,  and  for  this 
reason  pursues  it  with  the  greatest  perseverance.  It  is  true  that 
the  sportsman  pays  dearly  enough  for  the  pleasure  of  killing  this 
favourite  game ;  for  Snipe-shooting  is  not  only  more  fatiguing 
than  pursuit  of  the  Woodcock,  but  is  occasionally  dangerous. 
Has  not  the  Snipe-shooter  the  horrible  prospect  of  rheumatism 
saddling  itself  upon  him  at  an  age  when  most  persons  are  still 
vigorous,  to  say  nothing  of  the  falls  he  is  almost  sure  to  meet 
with  on  the  perfidious  surface  of  the  bogs  and  marshes  traversed, 
which  might  perchance  even  bury  him  in  their  muddy  depths  ? 
Certainly  this  thought  ought  to  cause  reflection ;  but  as  rheuma- 
tism generally  makes  its  appearance  late  in  life,  we  seldom  worry 
ourselves  about  it  when  young.  Besides  the  drawback  of  rheu- 
matism, Snipe- shooting  is  accompanied  by  innumerable  difficulties. 
Immediately  on  the  bird  rising  it  makes  two  or  three  sudden 
twists,  which  often  baffle  even  the  best  shots :  proficiency  can 
only  be  attained  by  long  experience,  aided  by  considerable  rapidity 
and  steadiness  of  hand  and  eye. 

The  Great  Snipe  is  about  a  third  larger  than  that  of  which  we 
have  just  been  speaking. 

The  Jack  or  Deaf  Snipe  is  thus  named  because  it  fails  to 
notice  the  approach  of  the  sportsman,  and  gets  up  literally  under 
his  feet.  This  is  the  smallest  of  the  European  species. 

Wilson's  Snipe  (Scolopax  Wilsonii)  is  a  native  of  America.  In 
size  it  is  the  same  as  our  Common  Snipe.  On  the  prairies  of  the 
Western  continent  it  is  found  in  immense  numbers.  It  is,  strictly 
speaking,  migratory.  The  male  and  female  differ  slightly  in 
plumage  and  size,  the  former  having  a  white  breast,  while  the 
latter  has  a  brown  one.  As  a  table  delicacy  they  cannot  be  sur- 
passed. 

The  GODWIT  (Limosa),  Fig.  133,  is  a  beautiful  bird,  of  slender 
make,  with  long  legs.  It  is  larger  than  the  Woodcock,  with  a 
longer  beak,  this  being  twice  the  length  of  its  head,  and  slender 


346 


GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


and  tapering  towards  the  point,  which  is  rather  depressed,  and 
slightly  curved  upwards. 

These  birds  inhabit  the  North  of  Europe,  and  in  the  autumn 
regularly  visit  France,  and  the  English  coast  from  Cornwall  to 
the  north-east  extremity  of  Scotland.  They  make  their  nests  in 
meadows  near  kthe  sea,  among  the  grass  and  rushes,  and  lay 
four  eggs,  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bird. 
Their  flesh  is  much  esteemed,  and,  with  the  exception  of  that  of 


. 


Fig.  133.— Godwits  (Limosa  melanura,  Temm.). 

the  Woodcock  and  Snipe,  is  undeniably  the  best  among  the 
group  of  Waders  that  frequent  our  coast. 

The  male  Godwit  is  always  smaller  than  the  female.  Two 
species  of  this  bird  are  known — the  Black- tailed  Godwit  (Limosa 
aegocephala) ,  and  the  Barred- tailed  Godwit  (Limosa  rufa). 

The  CURLEW  (Numenius),  Fig.  134,  is  remarkable  for  the  im- 
moderate length  of  its  bill,  which  is  slender,  curved,  and  round 
from  end  to  end.  Its  wings  are  medium- sized,  and  tail  short. 
Its  plumage  is  a  mixture  of  grey,  russet,  brown,  and  white.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  plaintive,  melancholy  cry  which  it 
utters  when  it  takes  flight. 

These  birds  frequent  the  sea-coast  and  the  vicinity  of  marshes, 
feeding  on  worms,  water-insects,  and  small  mollusks.  They 


THE  CURLEW.  347 

plunge  their  bills  into  the  ground,  to  a  small  portion  of  which 
they  communicate  a  vibratory  movement ;  the  worms,  disturbed  in 
their  subterranean  dwellings,  come  up  to  the  surface,  and  are 
immediately  swallowed. 

The  gait  of  the  Curlews,  generally  speaking,  is  grave  and 
measured  ;  but  if  any  one  disturbs  them  previous  to  taking  wing, 
they  begin  running  with  astonishing  rapidity.  They  are  capable 


Fig.  134. — Curlew  (Numenius  arguatus,  Gould). 

of  a  prolonged  flight,  but  do  not  generally  venture  far  into  the 
interior  of  the  country ;  it  is  on  the  coast  they  are  always  most 
abundant.  They  live  together  in  numerous  flocks,  except  during 
their  breeding-time,  when  they  isolate  themselves  in  order  to 
build  their  nests  in  some  dry  place  among  the  grass.  The  female 
lays  four  or  five  eggs.  The  young  ones  run  about  to  seek  their 
food  as  soon  as  they  leave  the  shell,  and  receive  no  attentions 
from  their  parents. 

The  Curlew  is  of  a  wild  and  timid  nature.  Nevertheless,  in 
Senegal,  they  have  been  domesticated ;  to  no  great  advantage,  it 
is  true,  as  their  flesh  always  retains  a  very  marshy  flavour. 

Curlews  abound  all  over  the  globe.  They  are  very  common  in 
France,  where  they  arrive  in  the  month  of  April,  leaving  again 


348  GRALLATORES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 

in  August,  although  sometimes  they  pass  the  winter  on  the 
coast.  Of  their  sojourn  in  the  British  Islands  the  same  may  be 
said.  A  beautiful  variety  of  the  Curlew  is  found  in  America.  In 
shooting  them  the  great  difficulty  is  to  get  within  range.  The 
sportsman,  if  well  secreted,  may  occasionally  succeed  in  obtaining 
a  shot  at  Curlews  by  imitating  their  call. 

The  IBIS  has  a  long  bill,  curved  in  the  direction  of  the  ground, 
almost  square  at  its  base,  and  rounded  towards  the  termination ; 
the  head  and  neck  are  bare.  It  has  four  toes ;  the  three  front 
ones  are  united  at  the  base  by  a  membrane  ;  the  whole  length  of 
the  back  toe  rests  upon  the  ground. 

These  birds  are  inhabitants  of  the  warm  regions  of  Africa,  Asia, 
and  America  ;  only  one  species,  the  Green  Ibis,  being  found  in 
Europe.  They  are  to  be  met  with  in  companies  of  seven  or  eight 
together,  in  moist  and  marshy  grounds,  and  on  the  banks  of 
large  rivers,  where  they  catch  the  worms,  water-insects,  and  small 
mollusks  which  form  the  principal  part  of  their  food.  They  also 
crop  young  and  tender  aquatic  plants.  Their  nature  being  mild 
and  peaceable,  they  do  not  keep  shifting  about  with  that  petu- 
lance which  characterises  some  of  the  Grallse,  but  have  been 
observed  to  remain  for  hours  in  the  same  place  engaged  in 
digging  into  the  mud  which  conceals  their  small  prey.  Like 
nearly  all  the  other  birds  of  this  order,  they  migrate  every  year, 
and  undertake  long  journeys  from  one  continent  to  another. 
They  are  monogamous,  each  pair  swearing,  as  it  were,  eternal 
fidelity  to  one  another,  and  death  alone  can  sever  the  bonds 
fortified  by  affection  and  habit.  They  usually  build  their  nests 
on  lofty  trees,  but  sometimes  on  the  ground ;  the  female  lays 
two  or  three  whitish  eggs,  which  hatch  in  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  days. 

There  are  eighteen  to  twenty  species  of  the  Ibis,  of  which  three 
only  merit  our  attention.  These  are  the  Sacred  Ibis,  the  Gfreen 
Ibis,  and  the  Scarlet  Ibis. 

The  Sacred  Ibis  (Ibis  religiosa)  is  about  the  size  of  a  Fowl.  Its 
plumage  is  white,  with  black  at  the  extremity  of  the  wings  and 
on  the  rump.  It  has  enjoyed  celebrity  from  ancient  times,  on 
account  of  the  veneration  of  which  it  was  the  object  by  the 


THE  IBIS. 


349 


Egyptians.  They  set  it  up  in  their  temples  as  a  divinity,  and 
allowed  it  to  multiply  in  their  cities  to  such  an  extent  that,  if 
we  can  believe  Herodotus  and  Strabo,  it  actually  impeded  the 
traffic.  Whoever  killed  an  Ibis,  even  by  accident,  at  once  be- 
came the  victim  of  a  mad  crowd,  who  stoned  him  pitilessly  ; 
and  the  dead  bird  was  embalmed  with  the  "greatest  care,  and 
then  placed  in  earthen  pots 
hermetically  sealed,  which  were 
ranged  in  special  catacombs. 
A  large  number  of  mummies 
of  the  Ibis  have  been  found 
in  the  necropoles  of  Thebes 
and  Memphis,  and  several 
specimens  of  them  are  to  be 
seen  in  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History  at  Paris. 

The  Egyptian  worship  of 
the  Ibis  is  a  certain  and  in- 
contestable fact.  Less  cer- 
tain, however,  is  the  origin  of 
these  honours.  Herodotus  has 
given  an  explanation,  obscure 
enough,  it  is  true,  but  which,  however,  was  adopted  by  his  suc- 
cessors, and  for  a  long  time  accepted  by  our  savants. 

"The  Arabians  assure  us,"  says  Herodotus,  "that  the  great 
veneration  which  the  Egyptians  render  to  the  Ibis  is  caused  by 
the  gratitude  which  they  feel  towards  them  for  ridding  the  country 
of  winged  serpents" 

According  to  tradition,  these  "winged  serpents"  came  into 
Egypt  from  Arabia  at  the  commencement  of  spring.  They* 
always  followed  the  same  route,  and  invariably  passed  through  a 
certain  defile,  where  the  Ibis  waited  for  them  and  destroyed  them. 
Herodotus  adds  that,  having  gone  to  Arabia  to  obtain  some  certain 
information  about  these  "winged  serpents,"  he  saw,  lying  on  the 
ground  near  the  city  of  Buto,  "  an  immense  quantity  of  bones 
and  vertebra)  unmistakably  those  of  the  winged  plagues." 

Since  the  time  of  Herodotus,  a  great  many  authors,  probably  on 


Fig.  135.  — Sacred  Ibis  (Ibis  religwsa,  Cuv.). ', 


350  GEALLATOBES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

his  authority,  have  reproduced  this  fable,  and  enriched  it  with 
variations  more  or  less  fanciful.  Cicero,  Pomponius  Mela,  Solinus, 
Ammianus,  and  -ZElian  have  mentioned  it.  According  to  the 
last  writer,  the  Ibis  inspired  the  serpents  with  so  much  dread, 
that  the  very  sight  of  its  plumage  was  sufficient  to  drive  them 
away,  and  a  mere  touch  killed  them  at  once,  or  at  least  stupefied 
them. 

Let  it  suffice  that  all  these  naturalists  admit  that  the  Egyp- 
tians venerated  the  Ibis  for  the  service  which  it  rendered  by 
destroying  numbers  of  venomous  serpents.  In  the  narrative 
of  Herodotus,  as  we  have  seen,  the  expression  "  winged  serpents  " 
is  used  for  venomous  ones.  The  translation  is  rather  a  free 
one,  it  must  be  confessed.  Moreover,  it  is  the  opinion  of  M. 
Bourlet,  who  has  written  a  memoir  on  the  subject,  that  by 
the  term  "  winged  serpents "  Herodotus  intended  to  describe 
locusts,  innumerable  swarms  of  which  were  wont  to  traverse 
Egypt  and  the  adjacent  countries,  destroying  everything  as  they 
pass.  This  explanation  appears  to  us  better  than  the  former,  for 
it  is  a  fact  that  the  Ibis  cannot  attack  serpents,  its  bill  being  too 
weak  for  such  a  purpose. 

Having  quoted  M.  Bourlet's  opinion,  we  may  as  well  give  that 
of  Savigny,  the  naturalist,  whose  studies  on  the  subject  have  been 
published  in  the  "  Histoire  Mythologique  de  1'Ibis." 

"  Between  aridity  and  contagion,  the  two  scourges  which  in  all 
ages  have  been  so  dreaded  by  the  Egyptians,"  says  the  author, 
"  it  was  soon  perceived  that  when  a  district  was  rendered  fertile 
and  healthy  by  pure  and  fresh  water,  it  was  immediately  fre- 
quented by  the  Ibis,  so  that  the  presence  of  the  one  always 
indicated  that  of  the  other,  just  as  if  the  two  were  inseparable ; 
they  therefore  believed  that  the  two  had  a  simultaneous  existence, 
and  fancied  some  supernatural  and  secret  relations  existed  between 
them.  This  idea,  being  so  intimately  connected  with  the  pheno- 
mena on  which  their  existence  depended — I  mean  the  periodical 
overflowing  of  their  river — was  the  first  motive  for  their  venera- 
tion of  the  Ibis,  and  became  the  basis  of  the  homage  which 
ultimately  developed  into  the  worship  of  the  bird." 

Thus,  according  to  Savigny,   the  Ibis  was   venerated  by  the 


CULTEIROSTKES.  351 

Egyptians  only  because  it  announced  to  them  the  annual  over- 
flowing of  the  Nile.  This  explanation  is  now  generally  accepted. 

This  bird,  whose  attachment  to  Egypt  was  formerly  so  great 
that,  according  to  .Mian,  it  suffered  itself  to  die  of  hunger  when 
it  left  the  country,  strange  to  say,  now  is  scarcely  ever  seen  there. 
The  cause  of  this  probably  is,  that  the  modern  Egyptians,  treading 
under  foot  the  ancient  faith  of  their  fathers,  kill  and  eat  the  Ibis 
as  they  would  any  other  fowl,  without  remembering  its  former 
rank  of  divinity.  Being  deprived  of  the  ancient  protection  which 
rendered  Egypt  so  dear  to  it,  the  Ibis  has  almost  deserted  the 
ungrateful  land  of  the  Pharaohs.  Still  it  occasionally  pays  brief 
visits  to  the  Delta  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of  the  Nile ;  but  it 
soon  takes  flight  into  the  wilds  of  Abyssinia,  forgotten  and 
unregretted.  It  is  also  found  in  Senegal  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

The  Green  Ibis  (/.  falcinellus),  called  by  Herodotus  the  Black 
Ibis,  has  black  plumage,  variegated  with  green  on  the  upper  part. 
It  inhabits  the  north  of  Africa  and  the  south  of  Europe.  Like 
the  first-mentioned  bird,  it  was  held  sacred  by  the  Egyptians. 

The  Scarlet  Ibis  (/.  ruber)  is  indigenous  to  America,  and  is  found 
principally  in  Guiana,  where  it  associates  in  flocks  at  the  mouths  of 
the  rivers.  Its  plumage  is  of  a  beautiful  vermilion  colour,  tipped 
with  black  at  the  ends  of  the  wings.  It  does  not,  however,  wear 
this  brilliant  plumage  till  about  two  years  old.  The  young  are 
very  readily  tamed,  and  their  flesh  is  tolerably  well-tasted. 


CULTRIROSTRES. 

The  Cultrirostres  (or  knife-shaped  bill)  have  a  long,  strong,  and 
sharp- edged  bill.  They  are  generally  provided  with  stout  tarsi, 
and  frequent  the  edges  of  marshes  and  banks  of  rivers.  Many  of 
them  enjoy  the  faculty  of  being  able  to  stand  on  one  leg  for  hours 
together.  This  singular  attitude  is  rendered  possible  by  means  of 
a  curious  mechanism,  which  was  discovered  by  Dumeril.  The 
tibia,  in  its  junction  with  the  femur,  presents  a  protuberant  knot, 
which  forcibly  stiffens  the  ligaments  of  the  knee,  forming  a  kind 
of  catch,  similar  to  the  spring  of  a  knife. 


352 


GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


The  principal  species  of  this  family  are— the  Spoonbill  (Platalea}, 
Stork  (Ciconia),  Jabiru  (Mycteria,  Linn.),  Ombrette,  Bec-ouvert, 
Drome,  the  Boatbills  (Cancroma),  Heron  (Ardea),  Crane  (Grus), 
Agami  and  Caurale,  and  the  Cariama  (Palamedea  cristata). 

The  SPOONBILL  is  remarkable  for  the  singular  form  of  its  bill, 
which  is  about  four  times  the  length  of  the  head,  straight,  and 


Fig.  136.— Common  White  Spoonbill  (Platalea  leucorodia,  Linn.). 

flexible  ;  the  upper  mandible,  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  broad  at 
the  base,  gradually  narrows  to  three-quarters,  and  again  increases 
to  two  inches  at  the  point,  causing  a  resemblance  to  a  spoon,  from 
which  it  takes  its  name.  It  uses  this  bill  for  dipping  into  the  mud 
and  water,  whence  it  extracts  worms  and  small  fish,  on  which  it 
principally  feeds.  It  also  eats  water-insects,  which  it  catches  by 
placing.its  bill  half  open  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  permitting 
them  thus  to  float  on  to  the  lower  mandible.  It  lives  in  small 
companies,  and  frequents  places  near  the  sea- shore.  It  is  easily 
tamed. 

There  are  two  species  of  them  :  the  White  Spoonbill,  which  has 
a  tuft  on  the  back  of  its  neck,  and  is  found  in  most  parts  of 
Europe — it  is,  however,  seldom  met  with  in  France,  and  then  only 
in  the  south;  and  the  Rose-coloured  Spoonbill,  a  native  of  South 


STOKKS.  353 

America,  the  plumage  of  which,  presents  the  most  beautiful 
tints. 

The  STORK  ( Ciconia)  has  a  long  and  straight  bill,  wide  at  the  base, 
pointed,  and  sharp- edged;  legs  long  and  slender;  tibia  bare  for 
half  its  length  ;  tarsi  long,  compressed,  reticulated ;  hind  toe  short, 
slightly  elevated,  and  inserted  rather  high,  but  resting  upon 
the  ground  ;  the  tail  is  short.  They  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Some  species  migrate  with  great  p  regularity, 
being  admirably  constructed  for  travelling  considerable  distances  ; 
for,  although  their  bulk  seems  great,  their  weight  is  comparatively 
small,  as  most  of  their  bones  are  hollow.  In  their  migratory 
journeys  they  fly  in  continuous  or  angular  lines,  and  chiefly  by 
night. 

Storks  live  in  moist  and  swampy  places  by  the  side  of  pools 
and  rivers.  They  feed  principally  on  reptiles,  batrachians,  and 
fishes  ;  but  they  also  devour  the  smaller  birds  and  mammalia, 
mollusks,  worms,  and  insects  ;  among  the  latter,  even  bees  become 
their  victims,  nor  do  they  disdain  carrion  and  other  impurities. 
Their  manner  is  slow  and  grave,  and  they  are  rarely  seen  to  run. 
They  have  wonderful  powers  of  flight :  on  the  wing  they  resemble 
crosses,  from  their  manner  of  carrying  the  head  and  neck.  They 
have  no  voice,  and  the  only  noise  they  make  is  a  cracking,  which 
results  from  one  mandible  of  the  bill  striking  against  the  other, 
and  which  expresses  either  anger  or  love  ;  it  is  sometimes  very 
loud,  and,  under  favourable  circumstances,  may  be  heard  as  much 
as  a  league  away.  They  lay  from  two  to  four  eggs,  their  fecundity 
increasing  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  their  size.  The  duration  of 
their  life  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years. 

There  are  several  species  of  Storks,  the  most  important  being 
the  White  Stork  (Ciconia  alba).  It  measures  about  forty  inches 
in  height ;  length  to  end  of  tail,  forty-two  inches ;  wings, 
extended,  seventy-six  inches  ;  its  plumage  is  white ;  the  wings 
are  fringed  with  black.  This  is  the  species  best  known  in 
Europe ;  it  is  chiefly  met  with  in  Holland  and  Germany.  In 
France,  Alsatia  is  chosen  as  a  residence  by  nearly  all  those  that  visit 
that  country.  It  is  so  rarely  seen  in  England,  that  there  it  has 
become  almost  a  matter  of  legend.  It  is  very  common  in  the  warm 
and  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  Leaving  France  every  year  in  the 

A  A 


354  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

month  of  August  in  order  to  visit  Africa,  it  returns  in  the  follow- 
ing spring.  This  migration  is  not  caused  by  temperature,  as  the 
Stork  can  bear  the  most  bitter  cold.  No,  it  is  a  mere  question 
of  sustenance ;  for  feeding,  as  it  does,  principally  upon  reptiles 
which  remain  in  a  complete  state  of  torpor  during  our  winters, 
it  is  naturally  compelled  to  seek  its  food  elsewhere. 

The  Stork  is  of  a  mild  nature,  and  is  easily  tamed.  As  it 
destroys  a  host  of  noxious  creatures,  it  has  become  a  useful  helper 
to  man,  who  is  not  ungrateful,  for  he  has  in  all  ages  given  it 
succour  and  protection.  In  ancient  Egypt  it  was  venerated  on 
the  same  score  as  the  Ibis  ;  in  Thessaly  there  was  a  law  which 
condemned  to  death  any  one  killing  these  birds.  Even  at  the 
present  day  the  Germans  and  Dutch  esteem  it  a  happy  omen 
when  the  Stork  chooses  their  house  as  its  home.  They  go  so  far 
as  to  furnish  it  with  the  means  of  doing  this,  by  placing  on 
the  roof  a  box  or  a  large  wheel ;  this  forms  the  framework  of 
the  nest,  which  the  bird  then  finishes  according  to  its  fancy 
with  reeds,  grass,  and  feathers. 

When  the  Stork  has  attached  itself  to  a  place,  and  is  kindly 
treated,  it  sometimes  loses  the  habit  of  migrating.  It  cannot, 
however,  quite  get  rid  of  a  certain  agitation  when  the  season  for 
departure  comes  :  occasions  have  been  known  where  it  yielded  to 
the  appeals  of  its  wild  companions  and  to  the  desire  for  progeny  (for 
in  captivity  it  is  always  barren),  and  was  allured  away  to  join  the 
band  of  travellers.  But  this  separation  is  only  temporary ; 
the  next  year  the  truant  returns  to  the  same  house,  and  again 
takes  possession  of  its  domicile  with  many  a  flapping  of 
wings  to  testify  its  joy.  It  exhibits  great  pleasure  in  renewing 
acquaintance  with  the  denizens  of  the  house,  and  is  not  long  in 
placing  itself  on  a  footing  of  familiarity  with  them.  It  frolics 
with  the  children,  caresses  the  parents,  plagues  the  dogs  and 
the  cats — in  a  word,  manifests  a  gaiety  and  susceptibility  of 
affection  which  one  would  hardly  expect  to  find  in  a  bird  gene- 
rally so  dull  and  taciturn.  It  presents  itself  at  the  family  meals, 
and  takes  its  share  of  them.  If  its  master  tills  the  ground,  it 
follows  him  step  by  step,  and  devours  the  worms  which  are  turned 
up  by  the  spade  or  the  plough. 


STOEKS. 


The  Stork  may  certainly  be  set  up  as  a  model  for  all  mothers  : 
its  love  for  its  young  ones  sometimes  even  approaches  heroism. 
We  will  give  two  touching  instances. 

In  1536  a  fire  broke  out  in  the  city  of  Delft,  in  Holland.  A 
Stork,  whose  nest  was  placed  on  one  of  the  burning  buildings, 
made  at  first  every  effort  to  save  its  progeny.  Finally,  seeing  its 
inability  to  assist  them,  it  suffered  itself  to  be  burnt  with  its  loved 
ones  rather  than  abandon  them. 

In  1820,  at  another  fire  at  Kelbra,  in  Russia,  some  Storks, 
when  threatened  by  the  flames,  succeeded  in  saving  their  nest  and 
young  ones  by  sprinkling  them 
with  water,  which  they  brought 
in  their  beaks.  This  last  fact 
proves  to  what  an  extent  in- 
telligence may  be  excited  un- 
der the  influence  of  maternal 
love. 

The  Stork  is  not  only  a  good 
mother,  but  she  is  also  an  ex- 
cellent wife.  The  attachment 
which  these  birds  show  for 
each  other  when  they  are  once 
paired  has  long  back  procured 
for  them  a  high  reputation  for 
conjugal  fidelity.  Thus,  in  the 
Yorarlberg  (Tyrol),  a  male 
Stork  was  known  to  have 

refused    to    migrate,    passing      ^  137._whii;stork  (Ciclmia  atba<  Temm). 
several   winters   by   the    side 

of  his  mate,  which,  in  consequence  of  a  wound  in  her  wing,  was 
unable  to  fly. 

We  must,  however,  add  that  some  lady  Storks  are  by  no 
means  slow  in  consoling  themselves  for  the  loss  of  husbands  who 
ought  to  be  the  subjects  of  eternal  regret.  A  few  tears,  as  a 
matter  of  form,  and  their  grief  ends  !  Sprungli  notes  the  case 
of  one  widowed  Stork  who  contracted  new  bonds  after  two  days' 
mourning.  Another  gave  evidence  of  the  most  guilty  perversity. 

A  A2 


356  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

The  lady  began  by  betraying  the  confidence  of  him  with  whom 
she  had  united  her  destinies ;  his  presence  had  evidently  become 
insupportable  to  her,  and  she  finally  killed  him  with  the  help  of 
her  accomplice. 

These  errors  of  the  female  render  the  high  morality  of  the 
male  more  conspicuous.  Witness  the  following  story,  related  by 
Neander : — 

A  number  of  Storks  had  taken  up  their  abode  in  the  market- 
town  of  Tangen,  in  Bavaria.  Perfect  harmony  reigned  in  every 
family,  and  their  lives  were  passed  in  happiness  and  freedom. 
Unfortunately,  a  female,  who  had  been  up  to  that  time  the  most 
correct  of  Storks,  allowed  herself  to  be  led  away  by  the  idle 
gallantries  of  a  young  male ;  this  took  place  in  the  absence  of 
her  mate,  who  was  engaged  in  seeking  food  for  his  family.  This 
guilty  liaison  continued  until  one  day  the  male,  returning  un- 
expectedly, became  convinced  .  of  her  infidelity.  He  did  not, 
however,  venture  to  take  the  law  into  his  own  hands ;  he  was 
reluctant  to  dip  his  bill  into  the  blood  of  her  he  had  once  loved  so 
fondly.  He  arraigned  her  before  a  tribunal  composed  of  all  the 
birds  at  the  time  assembled  for  their  autumnal  migration. 
Having  stated  the  facts,  he  demanded  the  severest  judgment  of 
the  court  against  the  accused.  The  ungrateful  spouse  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  unanimous  consent,  and  was  immediately 
torn  in  pieces.  As  to  the  male  bird,  although  now  avenged,  he 
departed  to  bury  his  sorrows  in  the  recesses  of  some  desert,  and 
the  place  which  once  knew  him  afterwards  knew  him  no  more. 

The  Storks  of  the  Levant  manifest  a  still  greater  susceptibility. 
The  inhabitants  of  Smyrna,  who  know  how  far  the  males  carry 
their  feelings  of  conjugal  honour,  make  these  birds  the  subjects  of 
rather  a  cruel  amusement.  They  divert  themselves  by  placing 
Hen's  eggs  in  the  nest  of  the  Stork.  At  the  sight  of  this  unusual 
production  the  male  allows  a  terrible  suspicion  to  gnaw  his  heart. 
By  the  help  of  his  imagination,  he  soon  persuades  himself  that 
his  mate  has  betrayed  him  ;  in  spite  of  the  protestations  of  the 
poor  thing,  he  delivers  her  over  to  the  other  Storks,  who  are 
drawn  together  by  his  cries,  and  the  innocent  and  unfortunate 
victim  is  pecked  tp  pieces. 


THE  MAEABOUT.  357 

Besides  the  numerous  virtues  that  we  have  just  stated — paternal 
love,  conjugal  fidelity,  chastity,  and  gratitude — the  ancients 
attributed  to  them,  (among  birds)  the  monopoly  of  filial  piety. 
They  believed  that  these  birds  maintained  and  nourished  their 
parents  in  their  old  age,  and  devoted  themselves  to  alleviating  the 
trials  of  the  last  years  of  their  lives  with  the  most  tender  care: 
Hence  was  derived  the  name  of  the  "  Pelargonian  Law  "  (from  the 
Greek  TreXapyos,  a  Crane),  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the  law 
which  compelled  children  to  maintain  their  parents  when  old  age 
had  rendered  them  incapable  of  working.  This  last  feature  in  its 
character  has  not  a  little  contributed  to  the  universal  celebrity  of 
the  Stork. 

The  flesh  of  the  Stork  forms  but  a  poor  article  of  food ;  it  is, 
therefore,  rather  difficult  to  see  why  the  sportsmen  in  our  country 
persist  in  shooting  at  it  every  time  that  they  get  a  chance.  The 
reprehensible  mania  which  our  French  Nimrods  possess  of  indis- 
criminately massacring  everything  which  shows  itself  within 
reach  of  their  guns  is  a  disgrace  to  those  who  practise  it,  and  an 
injury  to  the  community  at  large.  The  result  is  that  the  Stork, 
meeting  with  nothing  but  ill-treatment  in  return  for  its  loyal  and 
useful  services,  is  gradually  retiring  from  France,,  and  before  long 
will  have  completely  abandoned  it. 

The  Black  Stork  (Ciconia  nigra)  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
one  above  named ;  it  is  a  native  of  Eastern  Europe,  and  is  rarely 
seen  in  France.  It  feeds  almost  exclusively  on  fish,  which  it 
catches  with  much  skill.  It  is  very  shy,  and  avoids  the  society  of 
man ;  it  builds  its  nest  in  trees. 

The  ARGALA,  or  MARABOUT,  also  called  the  Adjutant  Bird,,  or 
Gigantic  Crane,  is  characterised  by  its  very  strong  and  large 
bill,  and  the  bareness  of  its  neck,  the  lower  part  of  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  pouch  somewhat  resembling  a  large  sausage ;  but, 
according  to  Temminck,  there  is  a  notable  difference  between  the 
African  Marabout  and  the  African  Argala,  the  characteristic  mark 
of  the  latter  frequently  hanging  down  a  foot,  while  it  is  much 
shorter  in  the  Marabout. 

These  birds  are  inhabitants  of  India  ;  they  feed  on  reptiles  and 
all  kinds  of  filth,  and  this  fact  has  been  the  means  of  securing  for 


358 


GRALLATOKES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 


them  the  good-will  of  the  people.  In  the  large  cities  of  Hindostaii 
they  are  as  tame  as  dogs,  and  clear  the  streets  of  every  kind  of 
rubbish  which  litters  them.  At  meaj-times  they  never  fail  drawing 
themselves  up  in  line  in  front  of  the  barracks,  to  eat  the  refuse 
thrown  to  them  by  the  soldiers :  their  gluttony  is  so  great  that 
they  will  swallow  enormous  bones.  At  Calcutta  and  Chander- 


Fig.  138.— Adjutant  (Ciconia  argala,  Selby). 

nagore  they  are  protected  by  the  law,  which  inflicts  a  fine  of  ten 
guineas  on  any  one  killing  a  Marabout. 

The  long  white  feathers,  celebrated  for  their  delicacy  and  airi- 
ness, which  are  used  in  the  adornment  of  ladies'  bonnets,  and 
known  in  commerce  by  the  name  of  Marabout  feathers,  come  from 
this  bird,  and  grow  under  its  wings.  Consequently,  in  spite  of 


THE  JABIRU. 


359 


their  ugliness,  a  good  many  Marabouts  are  reared  in  a  domestic 
state  in  order  that  these  lovely  feathers,  on  which  our  European 
fair  ones  place  so  much  value,  may  be  plucked  from  them  at  the 
proper  seasons. 

There  are  several  other  species  which  are  allied  to  the  Storks, 


Fig.  139. — The  American  Jabiru  (Myctcria  nmericana^  Linn.). 

and  are  only  distinguished  from  them  by  a  slightly  different  form 
of  the  bill.  We  will  confine  ourselves  to  merely  naming  them 
and  pointing  out  the  localities  they  inhabit.  They  are  as  follows  : 
— The  Jabiru  (Fig.  139),  which  is  a  native  of  South  America; 
the  Ombrette,  which  is  found  in  Senegal ;  the  Bec-ouvert,  which 
inhabits  India  and  Africa  (Senegal  and  Caffraria)  ;  the  Drome, 


360 


GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


which,  is  met  with  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  and  Senegal ; 
and  finally,  the  Tantalus,  which  lives  in  the  warm  regions  of  both 
the  New  and  Old  World. 

Whoever  has  once  set  eyes  on  the  BOATBILL  or  SAVACOU  (Fig. 
140)  will  never  forget  the  hird,  or  confound  it  with  any  other. 
What,  it  will  he  asked,  is  there  so  characteristic  about  it  ?  Nothing 


Fig.  140.— The  Common  Boatbill  (Cancroma  cochlearia,  Linn.). 

else  but  its  bill,  which  certainly  is  the  most  singular  implement 
one  can  well  imagine.  Fancy  two  long  and  wide  spoons,  with  their 
hollow  sides  placed  one  against  the  other,  the  end  of  the  upper  spoon 
being  furnished  with  two  sharp  teeth,  and  we  shall  have  some 
idea  of  this  extraordinary  storehouse,  as  it  may  be  called,  for  the 
proprietor  can  easily  stuff  into  it  provisions  for  a  whole  day.  If 
we  add  to  this  that  the  Savacou  possesses  a  beautiful  black  crest 
which  hangs  down  behind  its  head,  that  it  is  about  the  size  of  a 


THE  HEEON.  361 

Fowl,  also  that  it  has  short  wings,  and  rests  its  four  toes  firmly 
on  the  ground,  we  shall  then  have  a  pretty  exact  portrait  of  our 
subject.  This  bird  inhabits  the  savannahs  of  Central  America, 
and  occasionally  the  southern  portion  of  the  United  States,  fre- 
quenting the  banks  of  rivers,  where  it  feeds  on  fish,  mollusks, 
and  sometimes  crabs.  It  makes  its  nest  in  the  thick  under- 
brush. 

The  HERONS  (Ardea),  which  form  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
of  Cultrirostres,  have  the  bill  long,  pointed,  opening  widely,  and 
very  strong  ;  their  legs  are  in  part  bare  of  feathers ;  toes  long,  and 
furnished  with  sharp  claws,  not  excepting  the  back  toe,  the  whole 
length  of  which  rests  upon  the  ground ;  the  neck  is  long  and 
slender.  Further,  the  back  of  the  head  is  adorned  with  a  tuft 
of  long  feathers,  which  fall  over  its  shoulders  like  a  plume,  whilst 
those  in  front,  which  are  narrow  and  pendent,  resemble  a  kind 
of  beard  at  the  bottom  of  the  neck. 

These  birds  lead  a  semi-nocturnal  life,  and  frequent  the  margins 
of  lakes,  marshes,  and  rivers,  where  they  feed  on  reptiles,  frogs, 
and  fish.  They  are  generally  of  a  shy  nature,  and  live  in  solitude 
in  the  most  unfrequented  portions  of  extensive  woodlands.  When 
they  want  to  seek  their  prey,  they  go  into  the  water  until  it 
reaches  half-way  up  their  legs,  and  with  the  neck  doubled  down 
over  the  breast,  and  the  head  buried  between  the  shoulders, 
they  sometimes  remain  for  hours  together  immovable  as  statues. 
If  any  fish  glides  along  within  reach  of  them,  they  suddenly 
stretch  out  their  necks,  as  if  impelled  by  a  spring,  and,  with  a 
sharp  movement  of  the  bill,  impale  the  unfortunate  victim.  When 
their  fishing  is  not  very  productive  they  dig  into  the  mud  with 
their  feet,  to  turn  out  the  frogs  and  other  reptiles  that  are  con- 
cealed in  it.  If  compelled  by  hunger,  they  will  attack  rats,  wood 
and  field  mice,  and  if  further  pressed  they  show  no  repugnance 
to  carrion.  They  can,  however,  endure  abstinence  for  a  con- 
siderable time. 

Most  of  the  Herons  are  endowed  with  great  powers  of  flight. 
When  compelled  by  unusually  severe  weather,  they  occasionally 
migrate,  the  young  and  the  old  travelling  separately.  Nevertheless, 
as  they  can  accommodate  themselves  to  almost  any  temperature, 


362  GRALLA.TORES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 

some  species  are  stationary,  and  they  are  to  be  met  with  all  the 
year  round  in  countries  the  most  dissimilar. 

The  principal  species  of  Herons  are  the  Ash-coloured  or 
Common  Heron  (Fig.  141),  the  Purple  Heron,  the  White  Heron, 
the  Bittern,  the  Wight  Heron,  and  the  Crab-eater. 

Every  one  knows  the  Grey  Heron  (Ardea  cinerea),  at  least  by 
reputation,  if  only  from  La  Fontaine's  verse  : — 

"  Heron  with  the  long  bill,  fit  handle  of  a  longer  neck." 

Its  height  is  about  forty  inches,  and  it  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  globe.  It  is  the  most  common  of  the  French  Herons,  and 
the  only  one  which  joins  its  fellows  during  the  breeding  season,  in 
order  to  build  their  nests  and  sit  on  their  eggs,  and  rear  their 
young  in  company.  The  place  appropriated  for  this  assemblage  is 
generally  a  clump  of  lofty  trees  in  the  neighbourhood  of  some 
large  lake  or  river.  On  the  summits  of  these  trees,  or  in  the 
angles  formed  by  the  branches,  the  Herons  build  their  nests, 
which  are  of  very  simple  construction — a  few  boughs  interwoven 
together  with  smaller  twigs,  and  without  any  additions,  such 
as  moss,  grass,  &c.,  with  which  smaller  birds  love  to  line 
their  dwellings.  In  these  nests  the  females  lay  three  or  four 
eggs,  and  the  males  share  with  them  the  cares  of  incubation. 
After  the  eggs  are  hatched,  the  male  assists  in  the  nourishment 
of  the  young  family.  Frequently  he  disgorges  into  the  bills 
of  his  young  ones  the  frogs  and  small  fry  he  has  just  swal- 
lowed ;  sometimes  he  divides  among  them  a  large  fish  which  he 
brings  from  the  adjacent  lake  or  the  more  distant  sea-shore. 
Occasionally  they  undertake  journeys  in  order  to  insure  abun- 
dance for  their  progeny,  and  their  excursions  often  extend  over 
a  very  considerable  tract  of  country. 

When  the  young  Herons  are  able  to  fly,  they  leave  the  nest  and 
provide  for  their  own  wants. 

But  the  time  for  migration  has  arrived.  About  the  beginning 
of  August,  and  always  at  the  same  date,  the  colony,  then  amount- 
ing to  five  or  six  hundred  individuals,  range  themselves  in  order 
and  quit  the  heronry.  The  following  year  they  return  thither, 
and  their  arrival,  like  their  departure,  takes  place  on  a  regular 


HEEONS.  363 

day.  It  is  remarked  that  the  number  of  couples  is  always  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  nests,  so  that  each  couple  may  readily  find 
a  resting-place.  The  new  generation  must,  therefore,  have  gone 
to  found  a  fresh  colony  in  some  other  locality. 

Heronries  are  becoming  more  and  more  rare.  M.  Toussenet 
states  that  he  has  met  with  only  one  in  all  France,  that  at  Ecury 
(Marne),  between  Epernay  and  Chalons.  They  are  not  uncommon 
in  England,  where  many  ancient  families  connect  the  heronry 
with  their  ancestral  grandeur.  Lord  Warwick's  heronry,  on 
the  classic  Avon,  still  maintains  seventy  or  eighty  pairs  of  the 
noble  birds. 

The  Grey  Heron  has  enemies  in  the  Eagle,  the  Falcon,  and  the 
Crows.  The  latter  combine  to  steal  its  eggs ;  the  former  aim  at 
the  Heron  itself,  its  flesh  being  much  to  their  taste.  When  the 
Heron  finds  itself  pursued  by  a  bird  of  prey,  it  immediately  dis- 
encumbers itself  of  all  unnecessary  ballast,  and  then  endeavours  to 
get  the  uppermost  in  flying ;  this  plan  is  nearly  its  only  means  of 
safety.  Occasionally  it  succeeds,  for  the  Heron  is  able  to  attain 
immense  altitudes.  If  it  is  close  pressed,  it  makes  an  admirable 
use  of  its  bill  as  a  means  of  defence,  and  has  been  known  to 
impale  its  adversary.  Its  usual  tactics  are,  to  wait  for  its  enemy, 
lance  in  rest,  and  to  allow  the  latter  to  pierce  himself  through, 
merely  by  his  own  impetuosity.  If  it  has  a  chance  to  dart  its 
bill  into  the  eye  of  its  foe,  it  does  not  neglect  so  good  an  oppor- 
tunity of  utilising  its  small  endowments.  This  is,  in  fact,  a  pri- 
vate lunge,  a  coup  de  grace,  and  many  a  dog,  hunting  among 
the  reeds,  has  felt  the  poignancy  of  this  offensive  weapon.  We 
must,  however,  allow  that  the  Heron  is  not  always  so  fortunate, 
and  that  oftener  than  not  he  becomes  a  prey  to  his  eager  adver- 
saries— the  Eagle  and  the  Falcon. 

The  magnificent  powers  of  flight  possessed  by  the  Heron,  and 
his  clever  devices  in  defending  himself,  gave  rise,  in  days  gone  by, 
to  the  very  special  regard  with  which  he  was  honoured  by  kings 
and  princes,  who  hunted  him  with  Falcons  trained  to  the  sport.  The 
poor  Heron  was  doubtless  not  very  gratified  for  these  marks  of 
high  esteem,  and  it  is  probable  that,  if  he  could  be  consulted  at 
the  present  day,  he  would  bless  the  happy  obscurity  in  which  he 


364  GBALLATOBES,  OR  WADING  BIEDS. 

is  now  allowed  to  vegetate.  "  It  costs  too  mucli  to  shine  in  the 
world,"  is  the  moral  La  Fontaine  puts  into  the  mouth  of  his 
Heron. 

Although  its  flavour  is  certainly  as  disagreeable  as  possible,  the 
flesh  of  the  Heron  was  in  the  old  time  reckoned  as  a  "  royal  dish," 
and  was  only  served  upon  the  tables  of  the  great  and  powerful 
of  the  earth.  In  order  to  procure  this  supposed  delicacy  more 
easily,  the  idea  arose  of  artificially  arranging  a  certain  part  of  the 
forest  so  as  to  attract  the  unhappy  birds  into  a  retreat  which 
should  realise  all  the  characteristics  of  the  natural  heronry.  The 
birds  here  enjoyed  all  the  comforts  of  life  up  to  the  moment  when 
they  were  ruthlessly  torn  from  them  at  the  will  and  pleasure  of 
their  lord.  We  must  add  that  they  adopted  the  plan  of  taking 
from  them  their  progeny  to  assist  the  royal  treasury  ;  for,  as 
Pierre  Belon  tells  us,  "  they  were  in  the  habit  of  trading  largely 
in  the  young  ones,  which  brought  considerable  sums  of  money." 
Francis  I.  caused  heronries  to  be  established  at  Fontainebleau, 
which,  as  connoisseurs  tell  us,  were  everything  that  could  be 
wished. 

The  Heron  is  quite  susceptible  of  training  when  it  is  caught 
young ;  but  it  must  always  be  little  else  than  a  bird  of  ornament, 
as  the  service  it  can  render  amounts  to  little  or  nothing.  When 
adult  at  the  time  of  capture  it  is  altogether  intractable,  entirely 
refusing  food,  and  dying  at  the  end  of  a  few  days. 

The  Purple  Heron  ( Ardea  purpurea]  has  the  same  habits  as  the 
one  just  spoken  of,  but  it  is  a  little  smaller.  It  owes  its  name  to 
the  colour  of  the  numerous  spots  which  adorn  its  livery.  It  is 
rarely  met  with  in  France,  but  is  pretty  common  at  the  mouths 
of  the  Danube  and  Yolga,  and  on  the  margins  of  some  of  the  lakes 
in  Tartary. 

The  White  Heron  (Egretta  alba)  is  remarkable  for  its  plumage, 
which  is  entirely  of  a  pure  white.  Two  varieties  of  it  are  known 
— the  larger,  generally  called  the  Great  Egret,  is  about  the  size 
of  the  Ashy  Heron;  it  is  common  in  Eastern  Europe,  in  the  North 
of  Africa  and  America,  and  in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The 
smaller  kind  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Garzette  Heron, 
or  the  Little  Egret,  and  is  no  bigger  than  a  Crow ;  it  inhabits 


HEKONS. 


365 


the  confines  of  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe,  and  regularly  visits  the 
South  of  France. 

These   two  species  are   adorned,  during  the  breeding   season, 
with  fine  and  silky  feathers,  which  spring  from  the  shoulders,  and, 


Fig.  141.— Common  Herons  (Ardea  cinerea,  Temrn.). 

spreading  out  over  the  back,  fall  on  each  side  of  the  tail  in 
elegant  plumes.  These  are  the  feathers  with  which  European 
ladies  are  so  fond  of  adorning  themselves,  and  from  them  the 
birds  have  derived  their  name. 

Northern  Africa  presents  us  with  a  beautiful  White  Heron, 
about  the  size  of  a  Pigeon,  the  functions  of  which  are  extremely 
interesting ;  it  is  called  the  Ox-keeper.  In  Morocco  this  bird  is 
very  common.  It  is  in  the  habit  of  accompanying  the  oxen 
into  the  fields,  and  takes  the  task  of  relieving  the  latter  from 
the  numerous  flies  and  insects  with  which  they  are  annoyed.  In 
France  it  is  met  with  only  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone. 


366  GRALLATORES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 

The  BITTERN  (Botaurus)  has  both  the  neck  and  legs  shorter  than 
those  of  the  Grey  Heron ;  its  plumage  is  of  a  rich  reddish  yellow, 
boldly  variegated  with  dark  markings.  Districts  intersected  by 
marshes  are  the  chief  places  of  its  resort ;  in  these  it  keeps  itself 
hidden  all  day  long  among  the  reeds,  motionless  and  silent. 
Here,  too,  it  makes  its  nest,  almost  on  the  ground,  and  close  to 
the  water.  It  does  not  leave  its  hiding-place  until  the  evening, 
and  then  will  fly  up  to  so  great  a  height  as  to  be  lost  to  view. 
Its  call  to  its  mate  is  peculiar;  it  resembles  the  bellowing  of  a 
bull,  and  can  be  heard  more  than  half  a  league  away.  For  this 
reason  the  ancients  called  it  Bos  taurus — whence,  by  corruption, 
comes  the  French  Butor. 

The  Bittern  is  a  very  courageous  bird;  it  will  defend  itself 
energetically  against  any  bird  of  prey,  against  dogs,  and  even 
man.  It  is  found  all  over  Europe.  Four  British  species  are 
described  —  B.  stellaris,  B.  lentiginosus,  B.  minutus,  and  B. 
comatus. 

The  CRANE  (  Grus),  which  forms  a  genus  among  the  Cultrirostres, 
is  characterised  by  a  bill  much  longer  than  the  head,  stout, 
straight,  tapering,  compressed,  and  pointed,  but  always  slightly 
cleft ;  feet  long ;  tibia  bare  for  a  fourth  of  its  length,  covered  with 
hexagonal  scales ;  toes,  four ;  back  toe  short,  which  does  not  reach 
the  ground ;  wings  long  and  pointed.  The  Cranes  are  essen- 
tially migratory  birds,  and  possess  wonderful  requisites ;  for,  in 
addition  to  prolonged  powers  of  flight,  they  enjoy  the  valuable 
faculty  of  being  able  to  endure  total  abstinence  from  food  for 
several  days — a  faculty  which,  we  may  remark,  is  common  to 
most  of  the  Wader  tribe,  though  in  a  less  degree. 

There  are  three  species  described — the  Ash- coloured  Crane, 
the  Crested  Crane,  and  the  Demoiselle  Crane. 

The  Ash-coloured  Crane  (Grus  cinerea),  Fig. ,  142,  is  a  fine 
,  bird,  attaining  nearly  five  feet  in  height.  With  the  exception  of 
the  neck,  which  is  black,  all  the  rest  of  its  body  is  of  a  uniform 
ashy- grey  colour.  The  carriage  of  the  bird  is  noble  and  graceful, 
and  the  feathers  on  its  rump,  which  rise  up  in  undulating  clusters, 
add  much  to  its  elegance. 

These  Cranes  are  periodical  visitors  to  France ;  they  arrive  in 


CRANES. 


367 


n 


Europe  in  the  month  of  April  or  May,  passing  the  fine  weather  in 

more  northern  countries.     Towards  the  middle  of  October,  on  the 

arrival  of  the  first  cold  weather,  they  leave  us,  in  order  to  winter 

in  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  or  even  Southern  Asia.      They  travel 

flocks,  numbering  sometimes 

as  many  as  three  or  four  hun- 

dred  birds  ;    generally  they 

arrange    themselves   in   two 

lines,  so  as  to  form  an  isosceles 

triangle,  or  a  sort  of  wedge 

with  the  point  in  front  —  the 

most    convenient    formation 

for  cleaving  the  air  with  the 

least  amount  of  fatigue.  From 

time  immemorial  people  have 

been  fond  of  saying  that  these 

birds  intrust  the  care  of  their 

guidance  to  a  chief,  who,  after 

having    led    the   way   for   a 

certain   time,  and  becoming 

wearied,  surrenders  his  charge 

to  one  of  his  companions  and 

passes   to   the    rear    of    the 

band,  where,  like  a  new  Cincinnatus,  he  resumes  the  position  of 

a  simple  citizen.     The  fact  is,  that  the  leader  of  the  two  files 

changes  perhaps  ten  times  in  a  minute,  and  the  apex  of  the  angle 

is  occupied  in  succession  by  every  Crane  in  the  flock  within  a  very 

short  space  of  time. 

Cranes  almost  always  travel  at  night,  and  alight  down  on  the 
ground  during  daytime  to  seek  their  sustenance.  Sometimes, 
however,  they  do  not  stop,  and  continue  to  push  on  through  space, 
giving  utterance  to  startling  cries,  which  probably  are  intended 
as  a  rallying  summons  to  those  of  the  band  which  seem  tempted 
to  linger  on  their  journey.  When  they  perceive  a  bird  of  prey, 
or  have  to  contend  against  a  tempest,  they  abandon  their  usual 
formation,  and  collect  in  a  circular  mass,  so  as  better  to  resist  the 
enemy. 


Fig"  ^- 


368  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

Cranes  frequent  large  plains  intersected  with  marshes  and  water- 
courses. They  feed  on  fish,  reptiles,  frogs,  mollusks,  worms, 
insects,  and  even  small  mammals.  Some  kinds  of  grain  have 
also  attractions  for  them,  and  they  may  not  unfrequently  be  seen 
invading  the  newly- sown  fields  to  devour  the  seed  which  the 
farmer  has  just  committed  to  the  soil. 

When  the  breeding  season  arrives,  they  break  up  their  social 
compact,  and  pair  off  for  the  purposes  of  reproduction  and 
attending  to  the  rearing  of  their  young. 

Their  nests  are  but  roughly  constructed,  and  are  placed  on  any 
little  piece  of  rising  ground  in  the  midst  of  the  marshes  ;  in  them 
they  lay  usually  two  eggs,  the  male  sharing  with  the  female  the 
cares  of  incubation.  Although  these  birds  are  ordinarily  so 
timid,  and  are  alarmed  at  the  least  appearance  of  danger,  yet, 
when  they  have  their  young  ones  to  defend,  they  become  really 
courageous.  In  this  case  they  do  not  shrink  from  attacking 
man. 

The  Crane  ought  to  have  been  the  emblem  of  vigilance.  When 
the  flock  go  to  sleep,  with  their  heads  hidden  under  their  wings, 
one  of  their  number  is  specially  charged  with  the  duty  of  watching 
over  their  common  safety,  and  of  giving  alarm  on  the  approach 
of  danger. 

When  caught  young  they  are  easily  tamed,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  will  manifest  considerable  familiarity  with  their 
keeper.  They  are,  therefore,  a  good  deal  sought  after  in  some 
countries,  both  on  account  of  their  graceful  shape,  and  also  for 
the  sake  of  the  vigilance  which  they  exercise  round  about  their 
home. 

These  birds  were  well  known  in  ancient  times;  Homer, 
Herodotus,  Aristotle,  Plutarch,  ^Elian,  Pliny,  and  Strabo 
have  noticed  them  and  their  migrations.  Unfortunately,  not 
content  with  correct  observations,  they  have  given  credence  to 
some  most  ridiculous  fables,  invented  in  Greece  and  Egypt,  the 
classic  and  fertile  lands  of  the  marvellous.  Thus,  according  to 
the  Egyptian  story,  the  Cranes  made  an  expedition  to  the  sources 
of  the  Nile  to  fight  against  the  Pygmies,  who  were,  as  Aristotle 
says,  "  a  race  of  little  men,  mounted  on  little  horses,  who  dwelt 


CRANES.  3G9 

According  to  Pliny,  these  little  men  were  armed  with 
arrows,  and  mounted  on  rams  ;  they  abode  in  the  mountains  of 
India,  and  came  down  every  spring  to  wage  war  against  the 
Cranes ,  whose  sole  object  was  to  exterminate  the  Pygmies.  The 
Roman  naturalist  fancies  that  they  succeeded  in  this  destruc- 
tive aim,  for  the  town  of  Gerania,  which  even  in  his  time  was 
ruined  and  deserted,  was  formerly,  he  asserts,  inhabited  by  a 
race  of  Pygmies,  who  were  driven  out  by  the  Cranes.  In  the 
views  of  modern  commentators,  these  Pygmies  were  nothing  but 
monkeys,  which  assemble  in  large  troops  in  the  forests  of  Africa 
and  India,  and  always  manifest  hostility  to  birds. 

The  Greeks  have  also  invented  two  stories  about  Cranes,  which 
are  certainly  very  ingenious,  but  result  from  the  error  of  attri- 
buting too  much  importance  to  trifles.  They  say  Cranes  carry 
a  pebble  in  their  mouths  when  they  cross  Mount  Taurus,  so 
that  they  are  compelled  to  keep  mute ;  they  thus  avoid  exciting 
the  attention  of  the  Eagles  inhabiting  those  districts,  which  birds 
are  much  disposed  to  do  them  mischief.  In  the  same  way,  the 
Crane  which  is  placed  as  sentinel  to  watch  over  his  sleeping  com- 
panions is  bound  to  stand  on  one  leg,  and  carry  a  stone  in  the 
other  claw,  so  that  if  he  allows  himself  to  be  overtaken  by  slumber, 
the  fall  of  the  pebble  would  wake  him  up.  It  was,  as  we  are 
aware,  the  expedient  of  the  youthful  Aristotle  to  hold  an  iron 
ball  suspended  over  a  metal  basin  in  order  to  wake  himself 
if  he  succumbed  to  sleep.  We  shall,  I  think,  ascribe  too 
much  ingenuity  to  the  Crane  in  imputing  to  it  an  action  of 
Aristotle's. 

The  members  of  this  interesting  feathered  tribe  were  said  to 
possess  certain  virtues.  The  thigh  bone  of  a  Crane  imparted  to 
him  who  possessed  it  remarkable  vigour  and  elasticity  of  limb. 
Its  brain  also  was  a  kind  of  love-philtre ;  it  transformed  the 
ugliest  man  into  a  perfect  Adonis,  and  won  for  him  the  favour  of 
the  fair. 

It  is,  moreover,  to  the  Crane  that  the  Greeks  are  indebted  for 
one  of  their  favourite  dances.  Be  it  understood  that  we  are  now 
returning  to  plain  matter  of  fact.  The  games  and  dances  which 
Cranes  indulge  in  amongst  themselves  are  not  mere  idle  stories ; 
observers  of  our  own  day,  well  worthy  of  credit,  have  proved  their 

B  B 


370  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

complete  authenticity .  It  is  certainly  true  that  these  birds  form 
groups  in  various  fashions,  advance  one  towards  another,  make  a 
kind  of  salutation,  adopt  the  strangest  postures— in  a  word,  indulge 
in  pantomimes  both  burlesque  and  amusing.  This  is,  we  must  con- 
fess, a  curious  element  in  their  character,  and  has  been  made  the 
most  of  by  the  Chinese,  who  are  in  the  habit  of  teaching  Cranes 
to  dance  according  to  all  the  rules  of  art. 

The  ancients  set  a  high  value  on  the  flesh  of  the  Crane,  which 
is,  nevertheless,  anything  but  good.  The  Greeks  especially 
showed  a  great  fondness  for  it ;  they  used  to  fatten  these  birds 
after  having  put  out  their  eyes  or  sewed  up  their  eyelids  ;  this 
cruelty  being  necessary,  according  to  their  idea,  to  cause  a  proper 
degree  of  plumpness. 

In  the  fine  old  days  of  hawking,  the  Crane,  as  well  as  the  Heron, 
enjoyed  the  esteem  of  princes.  Even  in  the  present  day,  in 
Japan,  it  is  reserved  for  the  sport  of  the  Taicoun  (king),  and  the 
common  people  treat  it  with  all  the  respect  that  is  consequently 
its  due. 

We  should  certainly  fall  short  in  our  traditionary  lore  if  we 
failed  to  relate  the  far-famed  story  of  the  Cranes  of  Ibycus. 
Ibycus  of  Rhegium  was  a  lyric  poet,  who  enjoyed  some  reputa- 
tion in  his  day.  On  one  occasion,  when  he  was  proceeding  to  the 
Olympic  Games  in  order  to  contend  for  the  poet's  prize,  he 
lost  his  way  in  a  forest,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  two  malefactors, 
who  cruelly  murdered  him.  Just  as  he  was  dying  he  cast  his  eyes 
towards  heaven,  and  perceiving  a  flock  of  Cranes  passing  over,  he 
cried  out,  "  0  ye  bird- travellers,  become  the  avengers  of  Ibycus  ! " 
The  next  day  the  two  robbers  were  quietly  taking  a  part  in  the 
Olympic  contests,  when  the  news  of  the  murder,  which  arrived 
during  the  day,  excited  some  sorrowful  emotion.  All  of  a  sudden  a 
flight  of  Cranes  passed  over  the  arena,  uttering  loud  cries.  "  Do 
you  see  the  Cranes  of  Ibycus  ?  "  said  one  of  the  murderers  to  his 
comrade  in  a  humorous  tone.  This  remark,  being  overheard  ~bj 
some  persons  standing  by,  and  commented  upon  by  a  thousand  lips, 
became  the  ruin  of  the  two  scoundrels.  At  once  arrested  and 
pressed  with  questions,  they  were  compelled  to  confess  their  crime, 
and  were  immediately  put  to  death.  Thus  was  fulfilled  the  dying 
invocation  of  Ibycus. 


CRANES. 


371 


The  Demoiselle  Crane  (  Grus  virgo)  is  remarkable  for  two  beauti- 
ful clusters  of  white  feathers,  which  are  suspended  behind  its 
head,  and  for  a  black,  pend- 
ent tuft  with  which  nature 
has  adorned  its  breast.  Its 
size  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  the  species  just  described, 
and  its  shape  is  still  more 
elegant.  It  also  enjoys  in 
a  higher  degree  the  gift  of 
the  mimic  art.  Its  slightest 
movements  have  an  air  of 
affectation  and  mannerism, 
as  if  it  desired,  at  any  rate, 
to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
spectator;  hence,  in  French, 
the  name  of  Demoiselle  has 
been  given  to  it.  It  is  found 
in  Turkey  and  Southern 
Russia,  in  Northern  Africa,  Fig'  Ii3-D~lle  c™ 
and  in  some  parts  of  Asia  adjacent  to  the  latter  region. 

The  Crested  Crane  (Grus  pavonina),  or  Royal  Bird,  has  the 
top  of  its  head  adorned  with  a  tuft  of  feathers,  which  it  has  the 
power  of  spreading  out  like  a  fan,  so  as  to  form  quite  a  resplendent 
ornament.  About  the  same  size  as  the  two  sister-birds,  it  is 
slender  and  graceful.  Its  voice  is  very  loud.  It.  seeks  the 
acquaintance  of  man,  and  readily  grows  familiar  with  him.  Its 
chief  locations  are  the  eastern  and  northern  coasts  of  Africa, 
and  also  some  of  the  isles  in  the  Mediterranean  :  according  to  the 
ancients,  it  was  formerly  common  in  the  Balearic  Islands. 

TheAgami,  or  Hooping  Crane  (Psophia  crepitans,  Latham),  has  a 
strong  and  tapering  bill,  shorter  than  the  head  ;  long  tarsi  ;  and  me- 
dium-sized toes,  the  back  toe  touching  the  ground  at  the  extremity 
only.  Its  wings  are  short,  and,  in  consequence,  it  flies  with  difficulty  ; 
but,  to  make  up  for  this  deficiency,  it  can  run  very  swiftly.  This 
bird  is  but  little  bigger  than  a  domestic  Fowl.  It  is  in  the  habit  of 
uttering  at  intervals  a  piercing  cry,  which  seems  as  if  it  did  not 
proceed  from  the  bird  itself  ;  this  cry  has  procured  for  it  the  name 

B  B2 


**>•  Linn->- 


372 


GRALLATOKES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


of  the  Trumpet  Bird,  and  has  caused  some  to  ascribe  to  it  the  talent 
of  ventriloquism.  It  makes  its  nest  on  the  ground,  in  a  hole 
scratched  out  at  the  root  of  a  tree,  and  feeds  on  grasses,  seeds,  and 
small  insects.  Shyness  is  not  one  of  its  qualities,  and  it  will  sub- 
mit to  captivity  without  repugnance ;  it  forms  an  attachment  to 


Tig.  144. — Crowned  Crane  (Ardea  pavonina,  Linn.). 

its  master,  and  solicits  his  caresses,  just  like  a  pet  dog.  The  latter 
comparison  is  all  the  more  just,  as  the  bird  renders  very  much  the 
same  service  to  man  as  the  animal.  This  bird  is  intrusted  with 
the  care  of  the  flocks  out  of  doors,  and  in  the  evening  brings  them 
back  to  the  farm,  where  his  activity  finds  plenty  of  scope  in  the 
poultry- yard. 

In  its  wild  state  the  Agami  inhabits  the  forests  of  South 
America.  Its  flesh  is  agreeable  in  flavour,  and  is  often  eaten. 
It  is  easily  domesticated,  and  attaches  itself  to  man,  following 
its  master  about. 

The  CAURALE  (Fig.  145),  which  forms  a  genus  in  the  order  we  are 


OYSTER-CATCHERS. 


373 


now  considering,  is  a  bird  about  the  size  of  the  Partridge,  with  a 
large  and  fan-like  tail.     Its  brilliant  hues  have  obtained  for  it  in 


Fig.  145.— Caurale  (Figuier). 

Guinea  the  name  of  the  Little  Peacock,  or  Sun  Bird.     It  is  very 
wild  in  its  nature. 

PRESSIROSTRES  (COMPRESSED  BILLS). 

The  birds  which  belong  to  the  order  Pressirostrce  are  charac- 
terised by  a  middling- sized  bill — not,  however,  devoid  of  strength 
— and  a  back  toe  which  is  altogether  rudimentary ;  indeed, 
in  some  species  entirely  wanting.  They  are  mostly  vermi- 
vorous ;  some,  however,  are  granivorous  or  herbivorous.  In 
this  order  a  number  of  rather  dissimilar  birds  have  been 
reckoned,  some  of  which  belong  decidedly  to  the  Wader  tribe, 
whilst  others,  by  their  general  habits,  are  more  allied  to  the 
GallinacecB.  Among  them  are  the  Cariama  (Fig.  146),  the 
Oyster-catcher,  the  Yellow-leg,  the  Stone  Plover,  the  Lapwing, 
the  Plover,  and  the  Bustard. 

The  OYSTER-CATCHERS  (Hcematopus)  are  characterised  by  a  long, 
pointed,  and  powerful  bill,  which  they  use  like  a  pair  of  pincers 
for  opening  oysters,  mussels,  and  other  shell-fish  left  on  the  shore 
by  the  receding  tide,  with  the  sole  purpose  of  devouring  their 
contents.  Few  things  are  more  interesting  than  to  see  them 


374 


GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


hovering  over  the  retiring  water,  alternately  advancing  and  re- 
treating with  the  waves.  As  their  toes  are  united  at  the  base  by 
a  web  or  membrane,  they  enjoy  the  faculty  of  resting  on  the 


Fig.  146. — Cariama  (Palamedea  cristata,  Gmelin). 

water,  although  they  do  not  actually  swim.  They  utilise  this 
power  in  allowing  themselves,  every  now  and  then,  to  be  carried 
on  the  waves  to  some  distance  from  the  shore.  They  fly  well,  and 
can  run  with  the  greatest  ease.  Numerous  flocks  of  them  are  found 
on  almost  every  sea-coast  on  the  globe,  making  the  neighbourhood 
ring  with  their  shrill  cries. 

In  the  breeding  season  they  pair  off;  the  hen  birds  lay  from 
two  to  four  eggs,  either  in  holes  carelessly  scratched  out  on  the 
strand  or  in  clefts  of  the  rocks,  or  sometimes  in  marshy  meadows 
some  distance  from  the  shore. 


OYSTER-CATCHERS. 


375 


They  assemble  in  considerable  flocks  for  the  purpose  of  migration 
— if  this  term  may  be  held  applicable  to  the  short  journeys  which 
they  annually  undertake.  They  ought  rather  to  be  called  pleasant 


Fig.  147 .—Oyster-catcher  (lltematopus  ostralegus.  Linn.). 

little  jaunts — inspections,  as  it  were,  of  their  domains  ;  something 
like  the  circuit  of  his  department  made  by  a  prefect,  or  the  pro- 
gress of  a  sovereign  through  his  country. 

There  are  three  or  four  species  of  the  Oyster-catcher,  only  one 


Fig.  148. — .Runners  (Cursorius,  Figuier). 


of  which  is  a  native  of  Europe.     The  plumage  of  the  latter  is 
white  and  black,  which,  joined  to  its  noisy  habits,  has  obtained 


376  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

for  it  the  nickname  of  the  Sea  Magpie.  Its  bill  and  feet  are  of  a 
beautiful  red  colour ;  hence  the  name  of  H&matopus  (feet  the 
colour  of  blood)  was  given  by  Linnaeus  to  the  whole  genus,  when 
the  other  varieties  of  it  were  yet  unknown.  It  is  found  at  all 
seasons  on  most  of  our  coasts.  As  an  article  of  game  it  is  not  all 
one  could  wish. 

The  RUNNERS  (Cursorius)  have  slender  and  pointed  bills,  slightly 
bent  at  the  end  ;  long  tarsi ;  no  back  toe  ;  wings  much  pointed  ;  its 
plumage  is  of  a  dove  colour,  and  it  is  about  eighteen  inches  in 
height.  As  its  name  implies,  it  runs  with  surprising  rapidity. 
It  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  the  north  of  Africa,  and  only  casually 
makes  its  appearance  in  Europe.  Nothing  is  known  of  its  habits. 

The  LAPWINGS  ( Vanellus)  have  the  bill  enlarged  on  the  upper 
side,  two-thirds  of  its  length  being  filled  up  by  the  nasal  chan- 
nels ;  its  back  toe  is  excessively  short,  and  wings  pointed.  When 
flying,  they  make  a  noise  which  is  not  unlike  that  of  corn 
falling  back  on  the  winnowing-fan  ;  hence  their  French  name, 
Vanneau. 

These  birds  are  essentially  migratory,  and  come  down  from  the 
high  northern  latitudes  in  large  flocks  at  the  beginning  of  autumn, 
again  returning  thither  in  spring.  They  frequent  marshes  and 
the  margins  of  lakes  ;  in  fact,  all  moist,  soft  districts  which  abound 
in  earth-worms,  insects,  slugs,  &c.  They  may  often  be  seen 
settling  down  on  fields  recently  ploughed,  where  they  can  find  an 
ample  supply  of  worms.  They  are  in  the  habit  of  employing  a 
rather  ingenious  process  to  make  their  victims  emerge  from  the 
earth.  They  strike  the  ground  with  their  feet,  and  thus  give  the 
surface  a  slight  shock,  which  the  worm  is  tempted  to  attribute  to 
the  proximity  of  a  mole;  and  consequently  it  hastens  to  the 
surface  to  escape  its  underground  enemy,  when  it  is  immediately 
snapped  up  by  the  bird. 

The  Lapwing  is  a  model  of  cleanliness.  After  it  has  been 
feeding  on  the  ground  for  two  or  three  hours,  it  washes  its  bill 
and  feet ;  it  repeats  these  ablutions  several  times  in  the  day.  In 
this  respect  the  most  rigid  Mahommedan  could  scarcely  find  fault 
with  it. 

Lapwings  live  together  in  communities,  except  in  the  breeding 
season,  when  they  separate  into  pairs,  to  devote  themselves  to 


LAPWINGS. 


377 


hatching  and  rearing  their  young.  The  hen  lays  three  or  four 
eggs  in  the  most  simple  nest  that  can  be  imagined,  placed  in 
an  exposed  position  on  any  little  rising  ground  in  the  marshes. 
These  eggs  are,  it  is  said,  of  an  exquisite  flavour,  and  in  some 
countries,  especially  Holland,  a  large  trade  is  done  in  them. 

The  flesh  of  the  Lapwing  is  only  good  eating  during  certain 
months  of  the  year.*  About  All  Saints'  Day  these  birds  acquire 
their  finest  condition,  when  in  some  parts  of  France  they  are 
in  great  demand.  In  the  spring,  as  food,  they  are  very  in- 
different, easily  explaining  why  the  Church  has  allowed  them  to 
be  eaten  during  Lent,  for  at  that  period  assuredly  no  food  could 
be  more  maigre.  There  is  an  old  saying  which  celebrates,  and 
also  exaggerates,  the  culinary  virtues  of  the  Lapwing  and  its 
brother  bird,  the  Plover  :  "He  who  has  never  eaten  either  the 
Plover  or  the  Lapwing  does  not  know  what  game  is." 

The  Lapwing  might  be  ranked  amongst  the  most  useful  auxi- 


Fig.  149. — Pewit,  or  Crested  Lapwing  ( Vanellus  cristatus,  Temm.). 

liaries  of  man  ;  it  destroys  a  prodigious  quantity  of  worms, 
caterpillars,  and  noxious  insects.  After  hearing  this  the  reader 
might,  perhaps,  imagine  that  this  bird  has  found  aid  and  protection 


378  GBALIATOKES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS. 

from  mankind.  Nothing  of  the  sort ;  it  is  killed  wherever  and 
as  often  as  possible ;  besides  this,  means  are  discovered  to  set  a 
limit  upon  its  multiplication  by  stealing  away  its  eggs.  "We 
do  not  seem  to  perceive  that  this  joyous,  lively,  and  graceful 
bird  longs  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  mankind. 
When  will  man  make  up  his  mind  to  understand  his  true  in- 
terests ? 

There  are  in  Europe  two  species  of  this  genus — the  Crested 
Lapwing  and  the  Swiss  Lapwing,  or  Squatarole. 

The  Crested  Lapwing  (Vanellus  cristatus),  Fig.  149,  is  about 
the  size  of  a  Pigeon ;  its  belly  is  white,  and  its  back  black,  with  a 
metallic  lustre.  It  is  furnished  with  a  crest,  which  coquettishly 
adorns  the  back  of  its  head.  It  is  tolerably  abundant  in  France, 
but  seems  more  especially  partial  to  Holland.  The  Swiss  Lapwing 
is  distinguished  from  the  last  by  a  lighter-coloured  plumage,  and 
by  the  absence  of  the  crest. 

The  PLOVERS  (Pluvialis)  have  a  bill  closely  resembling  that  of 
the  Lapwing,  and  difler  from  it  chiefly  in  the  latter  having  a 
back  toe,  which  is  absent  altogether  in  the  Plovers.  They  are, 
however,  connected  by  several  ties  of  kindred.  Like  the  Lapwing, 
they  live  in  moist  places  and  in  numerous  flocks  ;  like  them,  they 
feed  on  worms,  which  they  catch  much  in  the  same  way ;  like 
them,  too,  they  make  frequent  ablutions ;  finally,  they  are 
always  close  neighbours,  and  unite  in  migration.  But  they  do 
not  follow  out  the  resemblance  with  the  Lapwings  so  far  as  to 
imitate  them  in  behaving  as  good  fathers  of  families,  and  in  living 
as  good  citizens  with  one  wife  chosen  once  for  all.  Plovers 
understand  life  in  quite  another  fashion  ;  they  have  other 
aspirations  and  other  desires ;  fidelity  in  love  is  not  a  quality 
which  suits  them,  and  they  practise  polygamy  on  the  very  largest 
scale. 

One  might  well  fancy  that  a  bird  of  such  low  morality  would 
not  be  easily  affected  by  the  misfortunes  of  its  fellows,  and  that  it 
would  be  endowed  with  no  feelings  but  those  of  utter  selfishness. 
But  nothing  of  the  sort.  If  you  knock  down  a  Plover  flying  in 
company  with  others,  you  may  notice  the  whole  flock  coming 
back  to  it  to  render  the  disabled  one  all  the  help  they  can  ;  and 
if  you  are  not  too  much  of  a  novice,  you  will  find  no  great  diffi- 


PLOVERS.  379 

culty  in  turning  this  circumstance  to  your  profit  by  filling  your 
game-bag. 

The  Plover  migrates  from  the  North  of  Europe  to  Africa,  and 
vice  versa  ;  it  thus  visits  France  twice  a  year,  in  spring  and  autumn. 
It  is  their  appearance  at  these  usually  rainy  seasons  which  has 
given  them  the  name  they  bear.  There  are  five  principal  species 
— the  Great  Land  Plover,  the  Dotterel,  the  Ringed  Dotterel,  the 
Kentish  Plover,  and  the  Golden  Plover. 

The  Great  Land  Plover  ( Oidicnemus  Bellonii,  Fleming)  is  about 
the  size  of  a  Crow  ;  it  is  very  uncommon,  very  active,  and  very 
suspicious  in  its  nature.  The  only  chance  of  shooting  it  is  in 
the  evening,  at  the  moment  when  it  comes  to  wash  itself  on  the 
edges  of  lakes  and  rivers.  Its  flesh  is  not  much  valued. 

The  Dotterel  (Pluvialis  morinellus)  is  a  little  larger  than  a 
Blackbird.  It  visits  us  in  March  and  September,  and  numerous 
flocks  of  these  birds  frequent  the  vast  plains  of  the  beautiful 
country  of  France.  This  is  the  bird  which  persists  in  sacrificing 
itself  to  the  sportsman's  gun  when  its  companion  has  fallen  a 
victim  before  the  murderous  weapon.  It  also  shows  the  simplicity 
of  believing  that  drunken  people  must  be  animated  with  the 
kindest  feelings  towards  it ;  so  much  so,  that  it  is  only  requisite 
to  exhibit  the  outward  signs  of  bacchanalian  excitement,  and  the 
birds  will  be  filled  with  a  sense  of  false  security,  so  that  you 
may  approach  within  a  few  yards  of  them. 

The  Dotterel  has  been  the  means  of  founding  the  reputation  of 
the  Pate  de  Chartres :  the  bird's  own  personal  experience  must 
long  ago  have  convinced  it  how  heavy  the  burden  of  renown 
sometimes  proves.  They  have,  in  fact,  found  themselves  so  much 
relished,  that  they  have  been  tracked  and  hemmed  in  on  all  sides 
by  eager  pie-makers.  The  only  chance  for  the  poor  creature  is 
to  seek  safety  in  flight,  and  abandon  a  country  where  it  is 
decidedly  too  much  loved.  Without  either  regret  or  envy  it 
must  have  seen  that  Larks  and  Quails  have  usurped  its  place  in 
popular  favour  for  filling  pates. 

The  Ringed  Dotterel  (Charadrius  hiaticuld),  Fig.  150,  is  about 
half  the  size  of  the  last  bird.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  black 
collar,  and  also  by  its  extraordinarily  brilliant  and  gold- coloured 
eyes.  In  former  days  this  bird  had  the  credit  of  being  able  to 


380 


GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  J3IBDS. 


cure  the  jaundice.  All  that  was  necessary  was  for  the  sick  person 
to  look  fixedly  at  the  bird's  eyes,  with  a  firm  faith  in  the  success 
of  the  experiment ;  under  these  conditions  the  bird  was  obliging 


Fig.  150.— Kinged  Dotterel  (Ctiaradriushiuticula,  Selby). 

enough  to  relieve  him  of  his  malady.  This  superstitious  idea 
has  departed  to  join  all  the  rest  of  the  medical  opinions  of  the 
middle  ages. 


Fig.  151. — Golden  Plover  {Charadrius pluvialis,  Linn.). 

The  Kentish  Plover  (Charadrius  cantianus,  Latham)  is  thus 
named  on  account  of  its  collar  being  divided  into  two  parts  ;  it  is 
rather  smaller  than  the  last-named  bird,  and  is  found  in  Europe 
and  Asia. 

The  Golden  Plover  (Plumalis  aurea),  Fig.  151,  is  the  size  of 


THE  BUSTAED.  381 

the  Turtle  Dove  ;  the  ground  of  its  plumage  is  of  a  yellow  colour, 
speckled  over  with  brown  spots.  In  winter  it  is  always  numerously 
represented  in  our  markets  :  this  is  occasioned  by  the  ease  with 
which  it  can  be  either  shot  or  netted. 

The  PLUVIAN  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Plovers, 
as  the  difference  between  them  is  altogether  insignificant.  We 
wish  to  mention  it  on  account  of  its  very  curious  habits,  to 
which  we  previously  called  attention  when  speaking  of  Reptiles. 
This  bird  is  a  native  of  Egypt  and  Senegal,  and  has  con- 
cluded a  friendly  treaty  with  the  Crocodiles  of  the  Nile,  which 
must  force  itself  on  the  meditations  of  philosophers.  The  Pluvian 
does  the  Crocodile  the  service  of  picking  the  latter's  teeth.  This 
assistance  rendered  by  the  little  bird  to  the  terrible  reptile  of  the 
Nile  is  really  rather  touching,  and  has  somewhat  the  appearance 
of  having  inspired  La  Fontaine  with  his  fable  of  the  "  Lion  and 
the  Mouse." 

The  BUSTARDS  (Otis)  are  allied  to  the  Gallinacece,  by  their  short 
back,  their  thick- set  shape,  and  the  general  character  of  their  habits ; 
but  their  elongated  tarsi,  and  their  legs  partly  bare,  give  them  a 
position  among  the  Grallce.  They  have  short  toes,  and  no  back 
toe  ;  they  run  with  extreme  rapidity,  assisted  by  their  wings. 
Their  flight  is  heavy  and  awkward.  They  frequent  dry  and  open 
plains,  and  make  their  nests  on  the  ground.  Their  food  con- 
sists of  worms,  insects,  grasses,  and  even  seeds ;  and  they  move 
about  in  large  droves,  although  their  range  is  rather  restricted. 
The  male  birds  being  less  numerous  than  the  females,  they  are 
generally  polygamous.  These  birds  are  shy  and  timid,  and  their 
flesh  constitutes  an  excellent  article  of  food. 

There  are  three  species  of  the  Bustard — the  Great  Bustard, 
the  Little  Bustard  (Fig.  152),  and  the  Oubara  Bustard 
(0.  Denhami). 

The  Great  Bustard  ( Otis  tarda)  is  the  largest  of  all  European 
birds  ;  its  weight  sometimes  attains  to  sixteen  kilogrammes.  It  is 
yellow  on  the  back,  with  black  streaks,  and  in  front  it  is  a  greyish 
white.  The  head  of  the  male  bird  is  ornamented  on  both  sides  with 
curled  feathers,  which  look  something  like  moustaches,  and  have 
obtained  for  it  the  name  of  the  Bearded  Bustard.  It  flies  with 
great  difficulty,  and  will  never  make  up  its  mind  to  take  wing 


382 


GEALLATOBES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


except  in  cases  of  absolute  necessity.     Its  eggs,  two  or  three  in 
number,  are  laid  in  the  corn  or  grass  ;  the  nest  is  nothing  more 


Fig.  152.— Little  Bustard  (Otis  tetrax,  Gould). 

than  a  hole  scratched  out  in  the  earth,  and  with  scarcely  any 
lining  on  the  inside. 

The  Great  Bustard  was  formerly  very  common  in  Champagne, 
but  has  now  become  extremely  rare.  Nevertheless,  it  is  the 
only  province  in  France  in  which  this  bird  is  to  be  met  with, 
and  we  might  almost  say  that  it  has  completely  disappeared  from 
French  soil.  Innumerable  troops  of  them  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
steppes  of  Tartary  and  Southern  Russia. 


BREVIPENNES  (SHORT- WINGED  BIRDS). 

The  birds  belonging  to  this  family  are  distinguished  from  the 
rest  of  the  Grallce  by  such  decisive  characteristics  that  some 
naturalists  have  proposed  to  include  them  in  a  separate  group,  to 
be  called  Cur  sores,  or  Runners  ;  an  arrangement  which  has  much 
in  its  favour,  although  the  simpler  arrangement  of  Cuvier  best 
suits  our  purpose.  In  certain  anatomical  points,  and  especially 


THE  OSTEICH.  383 

in  their  habits,  the  Brevipennae  differ  greatly  from  the  other  Gralla- 
tores.  They  have  wings,  it  is  true,  but  they  are  so  slightly 
developed  that  they  are  entirely  unfit  for  purposes  of  flight,  and 
are  only  useful  in  accelerating  the  speed  of  their  limbs.  On  the 
other  hand,  their  legs  are  long  and  powerful,  and  capable  of  im- 
mense muscular  effort,  thus  enabling  them  to  run  with  extraordi- 
nary fleetness. 

The  deduction  to  be  drawn  from  these  facts  is,  that  the  Brevi- 
pennes  are  essentially  land-birds.  This  limitation  of  their  habitat 
necessitated  certain  modifications  in  the  sternum,  which,  instead 
of  a  prominent  edge  of  bone  in  the  centre,  as  in  other  birds,  only 
presents  one  uniform  breast-plate.  Again,  most  of  the  Brevipennes 
are  birds  of  large  size,  and,  in  certain  circumstances,  manifest 
remarkable  vigour. 

This  group  comprehends  the  Ostrich  (Struthio  camelus),  the 
American  Nandou  (Rhea  americanus),  the  Cassowary  (Casuarius 
emu],  and  the  Apteryx. 

The  head  of  the  OSTRICH  (Struthio  camelus),  Fig.  153,  is  naked 
and  callous,  with  a  short  bill,  much  depressed  and  rounded  at  the 
point ;  its  legs  are  half  naked,  muscular,  and  fleshy ;  the  tarsi 
are  long  and  rough,  terminating  in  two  toes  pointing  forward, 
one  of  which  is  shorter  than  the  other,  and  has  no  claw ;  the 
wings  are  very  short,  and  formed  of  soft  and  flexible  feathers ; 
the  tail  taking  the  form  of  a  plume. 

There  is  but  one  species  of  the  Ostrich ;  it  is  sparsely  diffused 
over  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  is  rarely  found  in  Asia,  except, 
perhaps,  in  Arabia.  It  is  the  largest  member  of  the  Grallatores, 
generally  measuring  six  feet  in  height,  and  occasionally  at- 
taining nine  feet;  its  weight  varies  from  twenty  to  a  hundred 
pounds. 

The  Ostrich  has  been  known  from  the  most  remote  antiquity. 
It  is  spoken  of  in  the  sacred  writings,  for  Moses  forbade  the 
Hebrews  to  eat  of  its  flesh,  as  being  "  unclean  food."  The 
Romans,  however,  far  from  sharing  the  views  of  the  Jewish 
legislator,  considered  it  a  great  culinary  luxury.  In  the  days 
of  the  emperors  they  were  consumed  in  considerable  numbers,  and 
we  read  that  the  luxurious  Heliogabalus  carried  his  magnificence 


384  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

so  far  as  to  cause  a  dish  composed  of  the  brains  of  six  hundred 
Ostriches  to  be  served  at  a  feast :  this  must  have  cost  some  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  francs.  In  former  days  it  was  a  favourite 
dish  with  the  tribes  of  Northern  Africa.  At  the  present  date  the 
Arabs  content  themselves  with  using  its  fat  as  an  outward  applica- 
tion in  certain  diseases,  especially  rheumatic  affections  ;  and  they 
derive  from  it,  as  they  say,  very  beneficial  effects. 

The  natives  of  Africa  call  the  Ostrich  "the  Camel  of  the 
Desert,"  just  as  the  Latins  denominated  it  Struthio  camelus. 
There  is,  in  fact,  some  likeness  between  them.  This  resemblance 
consists  in  the  length  of  the  neck  and  legs,  in  the  form  of  the 
toes,  and  in  the  callosities  which  are  found  on  the  lower  stomach 
of  both.  In  some  of  their  habits  they  also  resemble  each  other ; 
the  Ostrich  lies  down  in  the  same  way  as  the  Camel,  by  first 
bending  the  knee,  then  leaning  forward  on  the  fleshy  part  of  the 
sternum,  and  letting  its  hinder  quarters  sink  down  last  of  all. 

An  entire  volume  might  be  filled  with  the  fables  recorded  about 
the  Ostrich.  In  the  first  place,  according  to  the  Arabs,  it  is  the 
issue  of  a  bird  and  a  camel.  One  Arabian  author  states  that 
it  is  aquatic  in  its  nature,  another  maintains  that  it  never 
drinks.  They  still  assert  that  its  principal  food  consists  of 
stones  and  bits  of  iron.  Buffon  himself  does  not  deny  that  it 
might  swallow  red-hot  iron,  provided  the  quantity  was  small. 
Pliny  and  (following  him)  Pierre  Belon,  the  naturalist  of  the 
Renaissance,  state  that  when  the  Ostrich  is  pursued  it  fancies 
itself  safe  if  it  can  hide  its  head  behind  a  tree,  caring  little  about 
the  remainder  of  its  body ;  and  some  of  these  absurd  ideas  are 
still  deeply  rooted  in  the  minds  of  the  public. 

It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  Ostrich  is  extremely  voracious. 
Although  the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing  are  so  highly  developed 
that  it  is  said  to  make  out  objects  two  leagues  off,  and  the 
slightest  sounds  excite  its  ear,  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell  are 
very  imperfect.  This  is  the  explanation  given  for  its  readiness 
to  swallow  unedible  substances.  In  a  wild  state  it  takes  into 
its  stomach  large  pebbles  to  increase  its  digestive  powers;  in 
captivity  it  gorges  bits  of  wood  and  metal,  pieces  of  glass,  plaster, 
and  chalk,  probably  with  the  same  object.  The  bits  of  iron  found 
in  the  body  of  one  dissected  by  Cuvier  "  were  not  only  worn 


THE  OSTRICH.  385 

away/'  says  the  great  naturalist,  "  as  they  would  likely  be  by 
trituration  against  other  hard  bodies,  but  they  had  been  con- 
siderably reduced  by  some  digestive  juice,  and  presented  all  the 
evidence  of  actual  corrosion." 

Herbage,  insects,  mollusks,  small  reptiles,  and  even  small  mam- 
malia are  the  principal  food  of  the  Wild  Ostrich ;  when  it  is  in  a 
state  of  domesticity  even  young  chickens  are  frequently  devoured 
by  it.  It  endures  hunger,  and  especially  thirst,  for  many  days 
— about  the  most  useful  faculty  it  could  possess  in  the  arid  and 
burning  deserts  which  it  inhabits ;  but  it  is  quite  a  mistake  to 
suppose  it  never  drinks,  for  it  will  travel  immense  distances  in 
search  of  water  when  it  has  suffered  a  long  deprivation,  and  will 
then  drink  it  with  evident  pleasure. 

The  muscular  power  of  the  Ostrich  is  truly  surprising.  If 
matured  it  can  carry  a  man  on  its  back,  and  is  readily  trained 
to  be  mounted  like  a  horse,  and  to  bear  a  burden.  The  tyrant 
Firmius,  who  reigned  in  Egypt  in  the  third  century,  was  drawn 
about  by  a  team  of  Ostriches  ;  even  now  the  negroes  frequently 
use  it  for  riding. 

When  it  first  feels  the  weight  of  its  rider,  the  Ostrich  starts  at 
a  slow  trot ;  it,  however,  soon  gets  more  animated,  and  stretch- 
ing out  its  wings,  takes  to  running  with  such  rapidity  that 
it  seems  scarcely  to  touch  the  ground.  To  the  wild  animals 
which  range  the  desert  it  offers  a  successful  resistance  by  kick- 
ing, the  force  of  which  is  so  great  that  a  blow  in  the  chest  is 
sufficient  to  cause  death.  M.  Edouard  Yerreaux  states  that  he 
has  seen  a  negro  killed  by  such  a  blow. 

Man  succeeds  in  capturing  the  Ostrich  only  by  stratagem. 
The  Arab,  on  his  swiftest  courser,  would  fail  to  get  near  it 
if  he  did  not  by  his  intelligence  supply  the  deficiency  in  his 
physical  powers.  "The  legs  of  an  Ostrich  running  at  full 
speed,"  says  Livingstone,  the  traveller,  "  can  no  more  be  seen  than 
the  spokes  in  the  wheel  of  a  vehicle  drawn  at  a  gallop/'  Accord- 
ing to  the  same  author,  the  Ostrich  can  run  about  thirty  miles  in 
an  hour — a  speed  and  endurance  much  surpassing  those  of  the 
swiftest  horse. 

The  Arabs,  well  acquainted  with  these  facts,  follow  them  for 
a  day  or  two  at  a  distance,  without  pressing  too  closely,  yet 

c  c 


386  GRALLATOKES,  OK  WADING  BIRDS. 

sufficiently  near  to  prevent  them  taking  food  during  the  time. 
When  they  have  thus  starved  and  wearied  the  birds,  they  pursue 
them  at  full  speed,  taking  advantage  of  the  fact  which  observa- 
tion has  taught  them,  that  the  Ostrich  never  runs  in  a  straight 
line,  but  describes  a  curve  of  greater  or  less  extent.  Availing 
themselves  of  this  habit,  the  horsemen  follow  the  chord  of  this 
arc,  and  repeating  the  stratagem  several  times,  they  gradually 
get  within  reach,  when,  making  a  final  dash,  they  rush  im- 
petuously on  the  harassed  birds,  and  beat  them  down  with  their 
clubs,  avoiding  as  much  as  possible  shedding  their  blood,  as  this 
depreciates  the  value  of  the  feathers,  which  are  the  chief  induce- 
ment for  their  chase. 

Some  tribes  attain  their  object  by  a  rather  singular  artifice. 
The  hunter  covers  himself  with  an  Ostrich's  skin,  passing  his 
arm  up  the  neck  of  the  bird  so  as  to  render  the  movements  more 
natural.  By  the  aid  of  this  disguise,  if  skilfully  managed, 
Ostriches  can  be  approached  sufficiently  near  to  kill  them. 

The  Arabs  also  hunt  the  Ostrich  with  dogs,  which  pursue  it 
until  it  is  completely  worn  out.  In  the  breeding  season,  having 
sought  and  found  out  where  the  Ostriches  lay  their  eggs, 
another  artifice  is  to  dig  a  hole  within  gunshot  of  the  spot,  in 
which  a  man,  armed  with  a  gun,  can  hide  himself.  The  concealed 
onemy  easily  kills  the  male  and  female  birds  in  turn  as  they  sit  on 
their  nest.  Lastly,  to  lie  in  wait  for  them  close  by  water,  and  shoot 
them  when  they  come  to  quench  their  thirst,  is  often  successful. 

The  Ostrich,  which  is  an  eminently  sociable  bird,  may  some- 
times be  seen  in  the  desert  in  flocks  of  two  or  three  hundred, 
mixed  up  with  droves  of  Zebras,  Quaggas,  &c.  They  pair  about 
the  end  of  autumn. 

The  nest  of  the  Ostrich  is  more  than  three  feet  in  diameter ; 
it  is  only  a  hole  dug  in  the  sand,  and  surrounded  by  a  kind  of 
rampart  composed  of  the  debris ;  a  trench  is  scratched  round  it 
outside  to  drain  off  the  water.  Each  hen  bird  lays  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  eggs,  according  to  circumstances.  The  eggs  weigh 
from  two  to  three  pounds,  and  are  each  of  them  equal  in  contents 
to  about  twenty-five  Hen's  eggs.  They  are  of  a  tolerable  flavour, 
and  are  often  a  very  seasonable  help  to  travellers,  one  of  them  being- 
more  than  sufficient  for  the  breakfast  of  two  or  three  persons. 


" 


Fig.  153.— The  Ostrich  (Strut/no  camelus,  Linn.). 

cc  2 


388  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

Incubation  usually  takes  six  weeks,  and  is  shared  by  both 
male  and  female  birds :  several  of  the  latter  often  lay  in  the 
same  nest,  and  live  together  on  the  best  terms,  under  the  control 
of  one  male.  Levaillant  remarked  four  females  taking  turns  in 
sitting  on  thirty- eight  eggs  laid  in  the  same  nest :  they  sat 
during  the  night  only,  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun  during  the 
day  being  sufficient  to  maintain  the  necessary  degree  of  warmth. 
He  also  observed  that  a  certain  number  of  the  eggs  were  not  sat 
upon,  but  were  put  aside  to  serve  as  nourishment  for  the  young 
ones  after  they  were  hatched. 

It  is  a  strange  circumstance  that  the  cry  of  the  Ostrich  so  much 
resembles  that  of  the  Lion  when  in  search  of  his  prey,  that  they 
are  often  confused.  Dr.  Livingstone  says  that  with  all  his  expe- 
rience he  has  been  frequently  deceived,  and  that  only  the  quick 
ear  of  a  native  can  detect  the  difference. 

It  was  long  a  subject  of  reproach  to  the  Ostrich  that  she  was 
wanting  in  affection  for  her  progeny.  She  was  looked  upon  as 
the  most  striking  example  of  the  hard-hearted  mother.  Thus,  the 
Hebrews  accepted  the  Ostrich  as  the  symbol  of  insensibility, 
because  she  left  her  eggs  upon  the  sand,  without  troubling  her- 
self, as  Job  says,  about  the  dangers  to  which  they  might  be 
exposed.  Jeremiah,  too,  laments  over  her  that  she  is  devoid  of 
family  affection.  All  these  accusations  are  quite  unfounded :  as 
we  have  already  seen,  the  Ostrich  does  not  abandon  her  eggs, 
neither  does  she  desert  her  young,  although  they  are  well  covered 
at  their  birth  with  a  thick,  warm  down,  and  can  from  the  first 
run  about  and  provide  for  their  own  wants.  On  the  contrary,  she 
keeps  them  near  her  until  they  are  almost  full  grown,  and  defends 
them  against  every  enemy.  Mr.  Gumming  came  suddenly  one 
day  on  a  dozen  young  Ostriches  no  larger  than  full-grown  Grouse. 
"  The  mother/'  he  says,  "  tried  all  she  could  to  deceive  us,  just 
like  a  Wild  Duck ;  first  she  ran  away,  extending  her  wings  ;  then 
she  threw  herself  on  the  ground  as  if  she  was  wounded  ;  whilst  the 
male  bird  cunningly  enough  conducted  the  young  ones  in  an 
opposite  direction/' 

Livingstone  on  several  occasions  met  with  broods  of  young 
Ostriches  led  by  a  male  bird,  which  pretended  to  be  lame,  in 
order  to  monopolise  the  attention  of  the  sportsmen. 


THE  OSTRICH.  389 

Both  the  male  and  female  birds  afford  one  another  mutual 
assistance,  as  is  proved  by  the  following  fact,  which  was  related  in 
a  report  addressed  to  the  Societe  d'Acclimatation  : — "Si-Djelloul- 
Ben-Hamza  and  his  brother,  Si-Mohammed-Ben-Hamza,  were 
one  day  hunting  Ostriches,  and  came  upon  the  tracks  of  a 
family  led  by  a  male  and  two  females.  Si-Mohammed  arrived 
first  in  sight  of  the  birds,  and  firing,  wounded  one  of  the  females. 
The  male  bird  at  once  darted  at  him,  and  struck  with  its  feet  at 
the  breast  of  his  horse,  which  from  fright  threw  its  rider  and  ran 
away.  The  Ostrich  then  turned  upon  Si-Mohammed,  kicked 
him  repeatedly,  and  did  not  quit  him  until  he  had  lost  all 
consciousness,  and  his  brother  Si-Djelloul  had  come  to  his  assist- 
ance." 

All  these  facts  abundantly  prove  that  the  Ostrich  is  not  so  un- 
natural a  parent  as  it  has  been  thought,  and  at  the  same  time 
give  a  complete  denial  to  the  accusation  of  stupidity  which  has  also 
been  made. 

In  spite  of  its  great  strength — perhaps  even  on  account  of  it — 
the  Ostrich,  when  unmolested,  is  the  most  peaceable  creature  in 
the  world ;  and  owing  to  its  inoffensive  nature,  it  readily  becomes 
domesticated.  If  captured  young,  it  can  be  tamed  in  a  very  short 
time.  General  Daumas  asserts  that  they  play  with  the  children, 
and  frolic  with  the  horses  and  dogs,  &c.  In  the  district  of 
Sennaar  they  are  reared  as  we  do  Fowls ;  they  are  left  to  wander 
about  as  they  choose,  and  one  of  them  attempting  to  escape  is  a 
thing  quite  unheard  of.  They  accompany  the  herds  to  pasture, 
and  return  again  to  their  home  at  meal-times.  Kindness  and 
caresses  are  sufficient  to  attach  them  to  any  one  ;  but  care  must 
be  taken  never  to  strike  them.  They  have  but  one  fault,  which 
arises  from  their  voracity, — they  are  dreadful  thieves,  and  devour 
everything  they  can  steal.  The  Arabs,  therefore,  always  look  out 
when  they  are  counting  their  money,  otherwise  the  Ostriches 
might  snatch  some  of  the  coin. 

In  all  ages  the  feathers  of  the  Ostrich  have  been  the  object  of 
considerable  trade :  the  birds  are  hunted  and  reared  in  a  domestic 
state,  not  so  much  for  their  flesh,  grease,  or  eggs,  as  for  these 
plumes.  Each  bird  produces  about  half  a  pound  of  white  feathers 
and  three  pounds  of  black.  These  delicate,  wavy,  and  flexible 


390  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

ornaments,  so  sought  after  by  the  fair  sex,  are  found  on  the 
Ostrich's  tail  and  wings ;  they  have  been  used  from  time  imme- 
morial for  the  adornment  both  of  man  and  woman.  The  Roman 
soldiers  decked  their  helmets  with  them,  and  the  Janissaries  their 
turbans,  when  they  had  distinguished  themselves  by  any  glorious 
deed.  At  the  present  day  there  is  a  large  demand  for  them. 
The  plumes  of  the  male  bird  are  more  highly  valued  than  those  of 
the  female,  and  all  are  superior  when  plucked  from  the  living 
bird. 

Several  Libyan  nations  in  former  days  used  the  skin  of  the 
Ostrich  for  a  cuirass,  and  even  at  the  present  time  some 
Arabian  tribes  put  it  to  the  same  use.  The  shells  of  Ostrich 
eggs,  which  are  very  hard,  are  also  utilised ;  they  are  made  into 
beautiful  cups,  which  much  resemble  vases  of  ivory.  The  Africans 
annually  destroy  a  large  number  of  these  birds ;  yet  their  race 
does  not  appear  to  diminish.  It  is  a  most  useful  creature,  and 
too  much  encouragement  cannot  be  given  to  the  trials  which 
have  been  made  in  Algeria  and  elsewhere  to  rear  the  Ostrich 
in  flocks  on  an  extensive  scale. 

The  NANDOU,  RHEA,  or  AMERICAN  OSTRICH  (Fig.  154),  bears 
the  greatest  resemblance  to  the  Ostrich,  of  which  it  is  the  repre- 
sentative in  the  New  World ;  but  it  is  only  about  half  the  size 
of  the  African  bird,  and  has  three  toes  in  front  instead  of  two. 
The  colour  of  its  plumage  is  a  uniform  grey. 

The  Nandou  (called  by  the  Brazilians  Nhandu-Guaqu)  inhabits 
the  Pampas  of  South  America,  the  coolest  valleys  in  Brazil,  Chili, 
Peru,  and  Magellan's  Land.  There  these  birds  may  be  seen 
wandering  over  the  open  plains  in  flocks  of  about  thirty,  in 
company  with  herds  of  oxen,  horses,  and  sheep.  They  browse  on 
the  grass  like  grazing  animals,  searching  at  the  same  time  for 
various  seeds.  They  run  nearly  as  swiftly  as  the  Ostrich, 
and  are  well  able,  by  speed,  to  escape  the  pursuit  of  their  ene- 
mies. If  a  river  comes  in  their  way,  they  do  not  hesitate  to 
plunge  into  it,  as  they  are  excellent  swimmers ;  indeed,  so 
fond  are  they  of  water  that  they  take  a  pleasure  in  washing  and 
bathing. 

The  Nandou  lays  its  eggs  and  incubates  them  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Ostrich.  They  are  birds  of  a  gentle  nature,  and 


THE  NANDOU. 


391 


are  tamed  with  the  greatest  ease,  becoming  very  familiar  in  the 
house,  visiting  the  various  apartments,  wandering  about  the  streets, 
and  even  into  the  country  ;  but  they  always  return  to  their  homes 
before  sunset. 

The  flesh  of  the  adult  Nandou  is  by  no  means  agreeable ;  that 
of  the  young,  on  the  contrary,  is  tender  and  sweet,  and  forms 


Fig.  154.— The  Nandou,  or  Ehea  (Struthi-j  It/iea,  Linn.). 


excellent  food.  Its  skin,  when  properly  dressed,  is  used  for 
bags,  purses,  &c.,  and  their  feathers  serve  for  plumes  and  light 
dusting  brooms.  We  owe  the  perfect  knowledge  of  a  second 
species  of  Rhea  to  Mr.  Darwin,  who  has  given  a  figure  and  ample  de- 
scriptions of  the  bird  and  its  habits  in  "  The  Voyage  of  the  Beagle;" 
it  has  been  named  in  consequence  Rhea  Darrcinii.  There  is  every 


392 


GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 


reason  for  thinking  that  these  birds  might  be  successfully  accli- 
mated in  Europe. 

The  CASSOWARIES  form  a  genus  of  birds  allied  to  the  Ostrich, 
although  they  differ  from  it  in  some  particulars — their  shape  is 
not  so  elegant,  and  their  wings  are  even  less  adapted  for  flight ; 


Fig.  155. — Cassowary  (Strut/do  casuarius,  Linn.). 

for  so  short  are  they,  that  ;they  are  perfectly  useless  even  to 
assist  in  running.  Their  long  blackish  feathers  are  almost  devoid 
of  side  fringes,  which  gives  them  a  resemblance  to  coarse  hair ; 
their  feet  are  provided  with  three  toes.  This  bird  was  called 
the  Emu  by  early  Portuguese  navigators.  Ifc  is  the  Struthio 
casuarius  of  Linnaeus,  the  Casuarius  galeatus  of  Vieillot,  and  the 
Cassowary  of  British  naturalists. 

The  Cassowary  has  a  kind  of  helmet  on  its  head,  produced  by 
an  enlargement  of  the  bone  of  the  skull,  and  covered  with  a  horny 
substance.  It  is  a  massively-made  bird,  in  size  between  the 
Ostrich  and  the  Ehea,  and  is  a  native  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian 


CASSOWARIES.  393 

Archipelago,  the  Moluccas,  Java,  and  Sumatra.  It  is  especially 
plentiful  in  the  vast  forests  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  The  first  bird 
of  this  species  which  was  seen  in  Europe  was  brought  from  Java 
by  the  Dutch  in  1597.  It  is  a  stupid,  quarrelsome,  and  gluttonous 
creature,  feeding  on  plants,  fruits,  and  sometimes  small  animals. 
Possessed  of  considerable  strength,  and  being  wild  and  fierce 
in  nature,  its  anger  cannot  be  provoked  without  danger  ;  for, 
although  its  wings  are  short,  each  is  furnished  with  five  pointed 
spines,  the  middle  one  of  which  is  a  foot  long,  and  which  are 
employed  with  adroitness  as  weapons  of  defence.  Its  habitual 
cry  consists  of  a  low  grumbling,  which,  when  the  bird  is  angry, 
is  changed  into  a  sonorous  humming  noise,  not  unlike  the  sound 
of  carriage- wheels  or  of  distant  thunder. 

The  menagerie  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris  was 
in  possession  of  a  Cassowary  which  devoured  everything  that  was 
given  it — bread,  fruit,  vegetables,  &c.,  and  drank  seven  or  eight 
pints  of  water  daily.  In  the  London  and  the  Paris  Zoological 
Gardens  there  are  generally  several  to  be  seen. 

The  Cassowary  runs  very  swiftly,  and  in  a  way  quite  peculiar, 
for  it  kicks  up  its  heels  at  every  step.  They  live  in  pairs, 
and  during  the  breeding  season  the  male  bird  shows  a  degree  of 
violence  which  renders  him  very  formidable.  The  female  lays 
three  or  four  eggs  in  the  dust,  and  sits  on  them  alone  for  about  a 
month.  The  young  birds,  when  first  hatched,  are  covered  with  a 
light  down,  and  are  without  the  helmet,  which  it  acquires  as  it 
approaches  maturity. 

The  wild  nature  of  these  birds  renders  them  but  little  fitted  for 
domestication :  this  is  a  fact  not  much  to  be  deplored,  as  their 
flesh  is  of  an  unpleasant  flavour,  and  in  no  other  respect  than 
as  food  could  they  be  of  any  service  to  us. 

The  EMU,  or  AUSTRALIAN  CASSOWARY  (Dromiceius  australis), 
Fig.  156,  is  distinguished  from  the  last-named  bird  by  its  larger 
size,  and  also  by  the  absence  of  the  helmet,  the  caruncles,  and  the 
pointed  spines  on  the  wings.  It  was  formerly  common  in  the 
great  forests  of  the  Eucalyptus,  in  Australia,  but  the  clearings 
of  the  colonists  have  now  driven  it  back  beyond  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains. Being  very  powerful,  it  offers  a  stout  resistance  to  dogs, 
with  wrhich  it  is  hunted.  It  can  be  tamed  much  more  easily 


tlilDlBKAND  .... 
Fig.  156.— The  Emu,  or  Australian  Cassowary  (Dromiceiw  australis,  Svvainson). 


THE  APTERYX. 


J395 


than  the  last- mentioned  bird,  and  manifests  some  attachment  to 
its  master.  It  is  an  excellent  and  useful  acquisition  to  man,  for 
its  flesh  being  of  an  agreeable  flavour,  is  much  esteemed.  The 
few  specimens  which  have  been  brough  tto  Europe  seem  to 
have  been  readily  acclimated,  for  they  have  bred. 

KIVI-KIVI,  or  APTERYX  (Fig.   157),   so  called  from  the  Greek 
a.Trrtp6v,  "  wingless,"  is  a  singular  bird,  bearing  but  little  resemblance 


Fig.  157.— Kivi-kivi,  or  Apteryx  (Apteryx  australis,  Gould). 

to  the  other  members  of  the  class.  It  is  no  larger  than  a  Fowl, 
and  combines  the  bill  of  the  Woodcock  with  the  feet  of  the  Galli- 
naceous tribe.  The  shortness  of  its  wings,  which  are  entirely 
unfit  for  flight,  is  the  sole  characteristic  which  entitles  it  to  rank 
with  the  group  in  which  it  is  placed. 

The  plumage  of  the  Apteryx  is  brown ;  it  has  no  tail,  and  its 
mere  stumps  of  wings  are  provided  with  strong  and  curved  claws. 
It  is  a  native  of  New  Zealand,  and  keeps  in  the  marshes,  where  it 
feeds  on  worms  and  grubs:  being  nocturnal,  it  does  not  leave 
its  retreat  until  the  evening.  In  spite  of  its  short  legs,  it  runs 
very  fast,  but  if  overtaken  does  not  yield  without  an  effort,  using 
either  its  feet,  armed  as  they  are  with  long  and  sharp  claws, 
or  the  points  at  the  end  of  its  wings,  as  weapons  of  defence.  It 
builds  a  very  rough  nest  among  the  roots  of  marsh- growing  shrubs, 
and  lays  a  single  egg,  excessively  large  in  proportion  to  the  size 


S96  GEALLATOEES,  OE  WADING  BIEDS. 

of  the  producer.  The  natives  call  the  bird  Kiwi.  They  used 
at  one  time  to  hunt  them  very  perseveringly,  as  much  for  their 
flesh  as  for  their  feathers,  which  they  used  in  making  mats.  Now 
they  have  renounced  this  work,  the  profits  not  compensating  for 
the  fatigue  which  it  entailed.  Day  by  day  it  is  becoming  more 
rare  and  difficult  to  procure.  The  Zoological  Society  of  London 
has  three  specimens. 

EXTINCT  BREVIPENNJE. 

The  order  of  the  Brevipennce  may  be  held  to  embrace  some 
birds  which  have  now  disappeared  from  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
but  which  are  supposed  to  be  contemporaneous  with  Man.  The 
remains  which  are  met  with  in  quite  modern  alluvium  scarcely 
admit  of  any  doubt  in  this  respect. 

In  the  first  rank  of  extinct  birds  we  may  place  the  DODO 
(Didus  ineptus,  Linn.),  Fig.  158,  which  was  indigenous  to  the 
Mauritius  and  the  Isle  of  France,  where  it  used  to  be  abundant, 
if  we  may  believe  the  testimony  of  the  companions  of  Yasco  de 
Gama,  who  visited  there  in  1497.  At  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  some  of  them  still  existed.  Former  travellers  have 
described  them;  and  these  accounts,  with  skeletons  and  an  oil- 
painting  in  the  British  Museum,  are  the  only  items  of  informa- 
tion which  we  possess. 

The  Dodo  was  a  fat  and  heavy  bird,  and  weighed  not  less  than 
fifty  pounds.  This  portly  body  was  supported  on  short  legs,  and 
provided  with  ridiculously  small  wings,  making  it  equally  in- 
capable of  running  and  flying,  dooming  the  bird  to  a  rapid  destruc- 
tion. Lastly  and  principally,  it  had  a  stupid  physiognomy,  but 
little  calculated  to  conciliate  the  sympathies  of  the  observer.  Its 
rear  was  decorated  with  three  or  four  curly  feathers,  making 
a  pretence  of  a  tail,  whilst  in  front  it  presented  an  enormous 
curved  bill,  which  occupied  nearly  the  whole  of  the  head. 

The  Dodo  did  not  even  possess  the  merit  of  being  useful  after  its 
death,  for  its  flesh  was  disagreeable  and  of  a  bad  flavour.  On  the 
whole,  there  is  not  much  reason  to  regret  its  extinction. 

In  the  island  of  Madagascar  fossil  eggs  and  bones  were  found 
of  a  bird  belonging  to  a  species  probably  extinct,  the  proportions 


THE  DODO. 


397 


of  which  must  have  been  truly  colossal.  One  of  these  eggs  was 
equal  to  at  least  six  Ostrich's  eggs,  and  its  capacity  more  than 
fifteen  pints.  M.  Isidore  Geoffroy  de  Saint-Hilaire,  who  gave  it 
the  name  of  Epiornis,  reckoned  that  its  height  could  not  be  less 
than  ten  or  twelve  feet. 

In   1867,   M.    Joly,   Professor  of  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  at 


Fig.  158.— The  Dodo  (Didus  ineptus,  Linn.). 

Toulouse,  published  some  very  interesting  observations  on  the 
structure  and  probable  habits  of  this  gigantic  bird. 

It  cannot  yet  be  asserted  that  this  bird  has  altogether  dis- 
appeared. The  Malagashes  state  that,  although  very  rare,  some 
few  representatives  of  it  still  remain.  There  is  an  ancient  tradi- 
tion among  this  people  relative  to  a  colossal  bird  which  could 
knock  down  an  ox,  and  then  make  a  meal  of  it.  This  tradition, 
however,  is  deficient  in  anything  like  evidence  of  its  correctness, 
for  an  examination  of  the  pieces  of  bone  found  proves  that  the 
Epiornis  possessed  neither  talons  to  seize,  nor  wings  with  which 
to  pursue  its  prey ;  it  must,  therefore,  have  fed  chiefly  upon 
vegetable  diet. 

In  New  Zealand  also  some  bones  have  been  lately  brought  to 
light,  which  must  have  belonged  to  a  species  of  bird  allied  to  the 
Ostrich,  but  superior  to  it  in  size,  which  attained  some  thirteen 
feet  in  height.  This  bird  has  been  designated  Dinorms.  Some  of 


398  GRALLATORES,  OR  WADING  BIEDS. 

them  probably  still  exist  in  that  country ;  at  all  events,  its  dis- 
appearance must  be  very  recent,  for  the  bones  which  were  dis- 
covered still  contained  a  large  proportion  of  gelatine.  Rumour 
states  that  a  Dinornis,  more  than  thirteen  feet  in  height,  was  seen 
by  two  Englishmen  in  one  of  the  marshy  forests ;  but  they  did 
not  venture  to  approach  near  enough  to  kill  it.  We  give  this 
tale  with  all  due  reserve,  as  its  authenticity  does  not  appear  to  be 
satisfactorily  established. 


CHAPTER  Y. 
GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

UNDER  this  name  Linnaeus  included  a  large  number  of  birds 
which  bear  considerable  analogy  to  the  Domestic  Fowl,  and  mostly 
included  in  the  E/asores  of  Illiger. 

The  GALLINACEJE  are  essentially  land  birds,  seeking  their  food 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  frequently  building  their  nests  upon 
it.  They  delight  in  scratching  the  earth,  and  in  rolling  them- 
selves in  the  dust.  Walking  is  their  habitual  mode  of  progres- 
sion, as  one  would  at  once  conclude  from  observation  of  their 
strong  legs,  and  their  short  and  but  slightly-bent  claws.  Some, 
like  the  Partridge,  are  swift  runners,  having  very  short  wings, 
which  render  their  flight  at  once  awkward  and  laborious.  In 
this  order  of  birds  we  do  not  find  more  than  two  or  three 
migratory  species. 

The  Gallinacese  have  short  arched  beaks,  which  are  generally 
very  strong,  and  well  adapted  for  crushing  the  husks  of  the  seeds 
which,  with  the  addition  of  grubs,  insects,  and  grasses,  form  their 
principal  nourishment.  Their  large  and  muscular  gizzards,  with 
thick  lateral  muscles,  lined  on  the  interior  with  a  very  tough 
coating  or  epithelium,  are  exactly  fitted  for  digesting  this  kind  of 
food.  The  triturating  power  of  the  Gallinacese  is  further  increased 
by  their  habit  of  swallowing  small  pebbles,  which  facilitate  the 
crushing  of  the  grain. 

In  certain  species  (the  Domestic  Fowl,  Pheasant,  Turkey, 
&c.)  the  males  are  armed  above  the  back  toe  with  one  or  more 


400  GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 

tapering  spikes  (a  kind  of  very  stiff  spur),  which  they  use  both 
for  attack  and  defence.  A  great  many  of  this  class  have  their 
heads  adorned  with  crests  and  combs  of  various  colours.  These 
appendages  exist  occasionally  in  the  females,  but  with  much  less 
development. 

Birds  of  the  most  brilliant  plumage  are  to  be  found  among  the 
Gallinaceous  tribe.  The  Peacock  (Paw),  the  Argus,  the  Lopho- 
phore,  and  the  Pheasant  may  be  said  to  bear  the  banner  of  their 
order  with  no  mean  degree  of  splendour,  and  may  worthily 
stand  in  comparison  with  the  most  splendid  of  the  Passerines.  This 
richness  of  colour  is  the  characteristic  of  the  male  bird,  for  the 
females  are  usually  of  a  dull  greyish  hue.  But  if  the  Gallinaceao 
captivate  the  sight,  they  are  far  from  affording  pleasure  to  the 
ear,  their  cries  being  shrill  and  discordant. 

Cruel,  tyrannical,  and  quarrelsome  are  the  characteristics  of  the 
majority  of  this  race.  They  are  polygamous,  and  the  females 
lay  a  large  number  of  eggs,  which  they  sit  upon,  unassisted  by 
the  male.  They  are  generally  divided  into  flocks,  consisting  of 
one  male,  several  females,  and  a  number  of  young  birds ;  but  it  is 
rarely  that  several  families  unite  to  live  in  common. 

The  Gallinacese  are  of  all  birds  the  most  useful  to  man.  Certain 
domesticated  kinds  stock  his  poultry-yard,  and  supply  him  with 
eggs  of  an  exquisite  flavour ;  nor  does  their  utility  cease  here — their 
flesh  is  a  popular,  wholesome,  and  delicate  food.  Those  known 
as  "  game  birds  "  are  also  abundant,  and  offer  amusement  to  the 
sportsman  and  table  delicacies  for  the  bon  vivant. 

Nearly  all  the  Gallinaceas  were  originally  natives  of  the  warm 
regions  of  Asia  and  America  ;  now,  such  as  the  Domestic  Fowl, 
the  Pheasant,  and  the  Turkey  are  perfectly  acclimated  to  all 
temperate  parts  of  the  globe. 

The  order  of  the  Gallinacese  may  be  divided  into  two  great  sub- 
orders, namely,  the  Gallinacese  proper,  to  which  the  characteristics 
we  have  just  enumerated  specially  belong;  and  the  Columbida, 
which  differ  from  them  in  certain  details  of  organisation  and 
habits,  to  be  described  hereafter. 


THE  COCK  OF  THE  WOODS.  401 


GALLINACEJE  PROPER 

Comprehend  six  families:  the  Tetraonidce,  the  Perdicid&y  the 
Tinamidtf,  the  Ckionida,  the  Megapodida,  and  the  Phasia- 
nidce. 


TETRAONID.E. 

The  birds  which  compose  this  group  are  characterised  as 
follows  : — Tarsi  completely  feathered  ;  a  naked  and  knotty  band  of 
skin  supplying  the  place  of  eyebrows  ;  the  body  bulky  ;  and  the 
wings  short.  This  family  comprehends  several  species.  The  best 
known  we  enumerate  : — The  Cock  of  the  Woods  (Tetrao  urogallus), 
the  Black  Grouse  (Tetrao  tetriz),  Cock  of  the  Plains  (Tetrao 
artimesia),  the  Pinnated  Grouse  (Tetrao  Cupido),  the  Ruffed 
Grouse  (Tetrao  umbellus),  the  Hazel  Hen,  or  Gelinotte  (Bonasia 
europtea],  and  the  Ptarmigan  (Lagopus). 

The  COCK  OF  THE  WOODS,  or  CAPERCAILZIE  (Tetrao  urogallus), 
inhabits  the  pine  and  birch  forests  of  northern  hilly  countries. 
They  feed  indifferently  upon  fruits,  berries,  the  buds  of  fir  and 
birch  trees,  insects  and  grubs — nothing,  in  fact,  comes  amiss  to 
satisfy  their  appetites.  Their  bearing,  which  is  proud  and  war- 
like, is  supported  by  a  robust  form.  Their  plumage  is  black, 
spotted  with  white,  and  clouded,  as  it  were,  with  bluish  diaphanous 
shades.  They  are  polygamous,  and  live  together  in  families. 
They  readily  seek  shelter  in  the  trees,  both  for  roosting  and  in 
order  to  conceal  themselves  from  their  enemies. 

At  the  first  breath  of  spring  the  male  birds  make  the  woods 
re-echo  with  the  loud  notes  with  which  they  summon  the  females 
to  come  to  them.  For  an  hour  every  morning  and  evening,  for 
over  a  month,  this  practice  is  continued. 

The  females  retire  into  the  thick  brushwood  to  build  their  nests 
and  lay  their  eggs  :  here  they  devote  themselves  to  incubation, 
and  afterwards  to  rearing  their  offspring — cares  which  devolve 
upon  them  exclusively.  They  deposit  from  eight  to  sixteen  eggs 
on  a  bed  of  grasses  and  leaves  roughly  interwoven.  The  young 
birds  run  about  as  soon  as  hatched,  and  remain  for  several  months 

D   D 


402  GALLINACEOUS  BlfiDS. 

with  the  mother,  who  on  all  occasions  watches  them  with  the 
tenderest  solicitude. 

The  flesh  of  the  Cock  of  the  Woods  is  juicy,  but  is  esteemed, 
more  for  its  rarity ;  for  the  buds  and  leaves  of  the  pines,  which 
are  its  favourite  food,  give  it  a  flavour  of  turpentine.  In  Scot- 
land this  species  became  extinct,  but  was  restored  by  the  Marquis 
of  Breadalbane  and  others,  who  imported  great  numbers  from 
Sweden.  It  is  almost  as  large  as  a  Turkey. 


fia 

-At 


Fig.  159.— Black  Grouse  (Tetrao  tetriz,  Gray). 

The  BLACK  GROUSE  (Tetrao  tetrix),  Fig.  159,  is  about  the  size 
of  a  Pheasant,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  tail,  which  in  the  cock 
is  divided  into  two  parts,  with  a  curling  notch,  composed  of  four 
lateral  feathers  on  each  side,  curving  outwards. 

The  COCK  OF  THE  PLAINS  ( Tetrao  artimesia,  Aud.),  so  called  from 
frequenting  and  feeding  on  the  sage  that  grows  in  profusion  on 
the  far -western  prairies  of  America,  is  a  noble  bird,  of  handsome 
plumage.  It  is  almost  as  large  as  a  hen  Turkey.  Its  numbers 
are  rapidly  diminishing. 

The  PINNATED  GROUSE  (Tetrao  Cupido,  Aud.)  is  a  native  of  the 
prairies  of  the  North  American  continent ;  it  is  the  same  size 
as  the  last-described  species,  but  the  plumage  is  a  light  brown, 
occasionally  ticked  with  white.  Its  call  is  deep  and  sonorous, 
much  resembling  the  bellowing  of  a  bull,  and  can  be  heard 
for  miles  in  still  weather.  It  is  an  excellent  table  bird,  and 


THE  HAZEL  GROUSE. 


40,'J 


affords  good  sport  to  the  lovers  of  the  gun.  The  Pinnated  Grouse, 
frequently  called  Prairie  Chicken  or  Hen,  pair  in  March ;  they 
lay  from  twelve  to  fourteen  eggs,  and  are  most  devoted  parents. 
Of  this  species  there  are  two  strongly-marked  varieties,  differing 
in  size  and  formation  of  tail. 

The  RUFFED  GROUSE  (Fig.  1 60)  is  also  an  American  bird,  but 
differs  essentially  from  the  last  mentioned  in  size,  habits,  and  selec- 
tion of  food.  The  hill- sides,  densely  covered  with  evergreens  or 
birch,  are  its  favourite  retreats  ;  on  the  wing  it  is  remarkable  for 
its  swiftness.  Although  not  migratory,  it  is  very  erratic. 


Fig.  160.— Ruffed  Grouse  ( Tttrao  umbeilus,  Aud.). 

The  HAZEL  GROUSE,  or  GELIXOTTE  (Bonasia  ewropcBa,  Gray),, 
inhabits  the  same  description  of  country,  and  has  habits  very 
similar  to  the  Black  Grouse.  Like  them,  it  is  suspicious  and 
timid,  and  hides  itself  among  the  thick  foliage  of  the  green 
trees  at  the  least  appearance  of  danger.  This  bird  flies  awk- 
wardly, but  runs  very  swiftly.  Its  flesh,  which  is  both  deli- 
cate and  savoury,  brings  a  high  price  in  the  market.  It  is 
much  less  rare  in  France  than  the  Cock  of  the  Woods,  and  is 
frequently  met  with  in  the  departments  of  Yosges  and  Ardennes. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  Partridge,  and  the  prevailing  colour  of  its 
plumage  is  a  reddish  brown  mixed  with  white,  or  variegated  with 

DD  2 


404 


GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 


grey  and  brown :  the  male  has  a  large  black  patch  under  the 
throat. 

The  PTARMIGANS  have  feet  much  like  those  of  a  hare,  and  thence 
is  derived  the  name  Lagopus,  which  signifies  "  hare-foot "  (Aayos, 
hare;  TTOVS,  TroSos,  foot).  These  birds  not  only  have  their  tarsi 
covered  with  feathers,  but  also  their  toes  and  the  soles  of  their 
feet. 

The  icy  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  and  the  summits  of  lofty 
mountains,  are  their  domain.  The  snow  is  their  favourite  resting- 
place  ;  they  delight  in  rolling  in  it,  and  turning  it  over  in  search 
of  food,  or  forming  holes  in  which  they  pass  the  night  to  take 
shelter  from  the  storm.  •# 

The  colour  of  Ptarmigans  is  perfectly  suited  to  the  northern 
solitudes  they  inhabit.  Their  plumage  is  of  a  brilliant  white,  save 
one  line  of  black  on  the  head,  and  some  tail-feathers  of  the  same 
colour.  This  is  their  winter  costume.  In  the  summer,  when  the 


Fig.  161.— Common  Ptarmigan  (Lagopus  mutus,  Gould),  Summer  and  Winter  Dress. 


snow  has  disappeared  under  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  they 
change  their  plumage,  and  are  clothed  in  a  habit  of  a  greyish 
colour,  spotted  with  brown  and  red  (Fig.  161).  Like  the  Cock  of 
the  Woods  and  the  Hazel  Hen,  they  are  birds  of  social  habits, 
and  cannot  bear  captivity.  When  kept  in  confinement  they 
become  sickly,  and  soon  fall  into  decline.  Their  flesh  is  excellent 
and  much  prized.  Numbers  of  them  are  sold  in  the  markets,  and 
considerable  quantities  are  sent  every  year  to  England  and  France 


GANGAS. 


405 


from  Scotland,  Norway,  and  Lapland.  The  two  principal  species 
are  the  Lagopus  mutus,  common  in  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and 
the  North  of  Europe  and  America  ;  and  the  Red  Grouse  (Lagopus 
scoticus,  Selby),  which  is  found  only  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
where  it  is  much  prized  for  its  beauty,  delicacy  of  flesh,  and  the 
magnificent  sport  it  affords  when  killed  over  dogs.  The  12th 
of  August,  the  first  day  of  Grouse- shooting,  is  looked  forward  to 
by  the  disciples  of  the  gun  as  anxiously  as  the  Derby  day  by 
turfmen. 

PERDICIDES. 

The  distinctive  features  of  the  birds  composing  this  family 
are — a  short  beak,  a  small  head,  a  round  and  massive  body, 
bare  tarsi,  with  spurs  more  or  less  developed,  and  a  middling- 
sized  back  toe.  The  wings  are  sharp,  pointed,  or  blunt,  according 
to  the  species.  This  family  comprehends  the  Gangas  (Pterocles, 
Temm.),  Syrrhaptes  (111.),  Quail  (Coturnix),  Partridge  (Perdix, 
Briss.),  Colin  (Ortyx,  Steph.),  Francolin  (Francolinus,  Briss.),  and 
Turnix  (Bonap.). 

The  GANGAS,  or  ATTOYENS,  are  essentially  birds  of  passage,  and 


Fig.  162.— Pin-tailed  Sand  Grouse  (Pteiocles  setariiis,  Gould),  Male  and  Female. 

in  consequence  are  provided  with  long  and  sharply- pointed  wings  ; 
but  the  range  of  their  journeys  is  not  very  great.  They  resemble 
the  Plover  in  their  power  of  lofty,  rapid,  and  sustained  flight, 


406  GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 

and  inhabit  the  arid  plains  of  Southern  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa. 

The  PIN-TAILED  SAND  GROUSE  (Pterocles  setarius),  Fig.  162, 
annually  makes  its  appearance  in  Spain  and  the  South  of  France  ; 
it  is  common  on  the  steppes  of  Southern  Russia,  of  Tartary,  Man- 
churia, Northern  China,  and  in  the  North  of  Africa.  Occasionally 
it  breeds  in  the  Pyrenees. 

The  SYRRHAPTES,  or  HETEROCLITES,  are  characterised  by  the 
total  absence  of  the  back  toe.  They  are  closely  allied  to  the 
Gangas,  and,  like  them,have  pointed  wings,  and  are  fond  of  tra- 
velling, but  their  flight  is  not  so  continuous,  for  in  their  journeys 
they  are  frequently  compelled  to  alight.  They  inhabit  the  steppes 
of  Tartary,  and  but  rarely  venture  into  Europe. 

The  QUAIL  (P&rdix  coturnix,  Latham)  has  a  small  beak,  a 
short  back  toe  inserted  rather  high  up,  tarsi  furnished  with  a 
rudimentary  spur  in  the  shape  of  a  horny  tubercle,  a  thick-set 
body,  sharply-pointed  middling-sized  wings,  and  hardly  any  tail. 
There  are  several  species  of  this  bird,  only  one  of  which  is  found 
in  Europe. 

The  Common  Quail  (Fig.  163)  is  noted  for  its  migrations. 
Every  year  innumerable  flocks  of  them  leave  the  regions  of  Africa, 
cross  the  Mediterranean,  and,  about  the  commencement  of  May, 
spread  themselves  over  Europe.  In  the  month  of  September  they 
return,  again  accomplishing  the  same  journey.  The  instinct  which 
impels  them  to  migrate  from  one  country  to  another  is  so  powerful 
that  it  is  observed  in  Quails  which  are  born  in  captivity.  At  the 
season  of  migration  captive  Quails  become  very  uneasy,  walk  up 
and  down  their  cages,  and  throw  themselves  against  the  bars  with 
such  force  that  they  frequently  fall  back  stunned,  and  sometimes 
even  crush  their  skulls. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  Quail  is  a  heavy  bird,  with 
wings  comparatively  small,  and  that  it  must  cost  them  great 
labour  to  migrate,  it  is  evident  that  it  must  be  undertaken  under 
strong  impulse :  probably  the  necessity  of  escaping  the  severity  of 
winter,  or  of  providing  for  their  sustenance,  is  not  the  only  cause, 
but  that  there  is  some  sort  of  instinctive  want,  equally  imperative 
with  that  of  hunger,  under  which  the  birds  are  irresistibly  forced 
to  traverse  such  indefinite  distances. 


408  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

The  fecundity  of  the  Quail  is  extraordinary :  if  it  were  other- 
wise the  species  would  soon  be  exterminated,  partly  from  their 
heavy,  awkward  flight,  which  renders  them  an  easy  prey  to  the 
sportsman's  gun,  but  still  more  from  the  wholesale  slaughter  of 
them  which  takes  place  in  certain  districts  at  the  time  of  migra- 
tion. The  Bishop  of  the  island  of  Capri,  situated  in  the  Bay  of 
Naples,  receives  an  annual  revenue  of  forty  thousand  francs  (£1,600 
sterling)  from  the  duty  he  has  imposed  upon  trading  in  Quails 
killed  on  the  island,  which  are  afterwards  sold  in  the  markets  of 
Naples.  From  this  he  has  received  the  name  of  the  "Bishop  of 
the  Quails." 

On  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  in  the  Morea,  Crimea,  and  in 
some  of  the  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  Quails  sometimes 
arrive  in  such  dense  masses  that,  according  to  a  popular  saying,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  stoop  in  order  to  pick  them  up.  They  fall 
exhausted  upon  the  ground,  and  the  sky  may  almost  be  said  to  be 
raining  birds.  The  inhabitants,  who  have  been  watching  for 
them  for  many  daj7s,  now  net  them  in  great  numbers,  and, 
having  salted  them,  and  packed  them  in  barrels,  export  them  to 
different  countries. 

Quails  travel  principally  in  the  evening  and  during  the  night. 
They  ascend  to  a  tolerable  height,  but  never  fly  against  the  wind  ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  scud  before  it,  and  are  thus  carried  across  the 
Mediterranean.  The  south  winds  bring  them  to  us,  and  the  north 
winds  carry  them  back  to  Africa.  If  overtaken  by  a  tempest 
during  their  passage,  they  have  not  power  to  resist  it,  but  fall 
into  the  waves.  Thousands  of  them  have  been  found  drowned 
around  the  precipitous  portions  of  the  island  of  Malta ;  their 
strength  had  failed  them,  and,  from  being  unable  to  gain  sufficient 
elevation,  they  found  a  watery  grave.  They  also  take  shelter 
occasionally  on  the  decks  of  passing  vessels. 

Quails  principally  frequent  plains  covered  with  cereals  or 
fertile  pastures.  They  delight  in  rolling  in  the  dust,  and  are 
never  known  to  perch.  Their  food  consists  of  seeds  and  insects. 
They  are  not  sociable  birds ;  for  the  sexes  do  not  approach  one 
another  except  in  the  breeding  season,  and  parent  and  young 
separate  as  soon  as  the  mother's  care  is  no  longer  necessary  for  the 
protection  of  the  brood.  This  period  soon  arrives,  as  the  little 


;  I 


410  GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 

things  are  of  rapid  growth.  The  hen  birds  lay  twice  during  the 
year,  once  in  Europe  and  once  in  Africa,  and  each  time  produce 
from  ten  to  fourteen  eggs. 

The  Quail  is  a  very  swift  runner,  and  frequently  employs  this 
mode  of  locomotion  to  escape  pursuit.  It  is  only  in  cases  of 
imminent  danger  that  it  has  recourse  to  flight.  It  flies  in  a 
straight  line,  keeping  close  to  the  ground,  and  shows  itself  a 
thorough  master  in  the  art  of  baffling  dogs  by  throwing  them  off 
their  scent.  Hidden  in  the  thick  tufts  of  lucern,  it  often  bids 
defiance  to  the  novice  ;  but  its  wiles  are  seldom  successful  before 
an  experienced  sportsman. 

This  bird  is  not  as  large  as  the  Partridge.  "When  killed  at  the 
proper  time — that  is  to  say,  when  it  has  rested  after  its  fatiguing 
journey  and  recovered  condition — it  is  covered  with  a  layer  of 
fat  which  is  not  surpassed  in  richness  and  flavour  by  any  other 
bird.  Its  flesh  is  sweet  and  delicate,  and  emits  an  odour  grateful 
alike  to  the  nose  and  palate.  This  bird  ranks  immediately  after 
the  Woodcock  and  the  Snipe  in  the  estimation  of  epicures. 

The  capture  of  Quails  was  formerly  performed  in  several  ways. 
They  were  caught  in  a  net  or  a  trap,  in  which  a  bait  was  placed : 
they  were  also  shot  with  the  help  of  a  pointer.  This  last  method 
is  the  only  one  which  is  nowadays  allowed  in  France ;  and,  thanks 
to  this  restriction,  the  bird  is  now  destroyed  on  a  less  extensive 
scale  than  in  times  past,  and  the  species  may  yet  be  something 
more  than  a  myth  to  future  generations. 

The  PARTRIDGE  (Perdix)  has  a  sharply  recurvate  beak,  a  thick- 
set body,  blunt  wings,  and  a  short  and  drooping  tail.  The  tarsi  of 
the  male  bird  are  either  provided  with,  or  destitute  of,  tubercles, 
according  to  the  species. 

Partridges  live  constantly  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  never 
perch  except  when  they  are  absolutely  forced  to  do  so.  They 
have,  like  the  Quail,  the  pulverulent  instinct,  and  run  with 
remarkable  swiftness.  Their  flight  is  also  very  rapid,  but  low, 
and  does  not  extend  to  long  distances. 

These  birds  are  eminently  sociable,  and  live,  during  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  year,  in  flocks  or  coveys,  composed  of  the  parents 
and  the  young  ones  of  the  last  brood.  They  are  not  migratory, 
and  seem  to  attach  themselves  to  certain  localities,  confining 


PAETEIDGES.  411 

themselves  to  a  limited  extent  of  country,  in  which  they  pass 
their  lives.  They  never  leave  this  except  by  accident.  In  it 
they  make  choice  of  a  sanctum  in  which  to  take  shelter  when 
pursued  ;  this  is  called  by  sportsmen  a  "  cover." 

Partridges  are  monogamous ;  they  pair  early  in  the  year,  which 
union  does  not  cease  until  the  following  spring. 

In  certain  species,  such  as  the  Red  Partridge,  where  the  females 
are  less  numerous  than  the  males,  a  great  number  of  the  latter 
remain  single.  As  the  cocks  do  not  willingly  resign  themselves 
to  single  blessedness,  but  make  many  attempts  to  avoid  it  at  the 
expense  of  their  neighbours,  this  is  the  cause  of  frequent  quarrels. 
These  conflicts  at  last  come  to  an  end — the  various  pairs  are 
firmly  united ;  and  the  unsuccessful  candidates  for  affection,  who 
object  to  making  up  their  minds  to  live  as  hermits,  ultimately 
combine  together. 

The  attachment  of  the  male  to  the  female  is  deserving  of  admi- 
ration. At  the  time  for  laying,  the  hen  bird  makes  a  hole  in  the 
earth,  which  she  lines  with  grass  and  leaves,  and  in  it  deposits 
her  eggs,  to  the  number  of  twelve  or  fifteen,  and  sometimes  even 
twenty  or  more.  The  season  of  incubation  follows  after,  which 
lasts  twenty  days  at  least.  During  this  time  the  male  bird  watches 
over  his  companion,  and  guards  her  from  danger.  When  the 
young  are  hatched,  paternal  affection  is  added  to  conjugal  love, 
and  a  portion  of  the  father's  care  is  devoted  to  the  young  brood. 
He  accompanies  them  in  their  wanderings ;  he  teaches  them  to 
catch  grubs,  finds  ants'  eggs,  and  shows  himself  as  skilful  as  the 
mother  in  guarding  them  from  attacks  of  their  enemies.  At  the 
appearance  of  the  sportsman  or  dog  the  male  utters  a  cry  of 
alarm,  which  warns  the  young  ones  of  their  danger,  and  enjoins 
them  to  seek  concealment.  Drooping  his  wings  in  order  to  induce 
the  intruder  to  follow  him,  he  pretends  to  fly  away.  At  the  same 
time  the  female  proceeds  in  another  direction ;  and  alighting  at 
some  distance  off,  she  runs  back  to  her  family,  reassembles  them, 
and  leads  them  to  a  place  of  security,  where  they  are  soon  joined 
by  the  male  bird.  The  above  is  one  of  the  ingenious  stratagems 
by  which  the  young  brood  is  defended  from  pursuit. 

Some  weeks  after  they  are  hatched,  the  young  Partridges  are 
fit  to  fly  and  to  provide  for  their  own  wants.  As  we  have  already 


PAETRIDGES.  413 

said,  they  do  not  now  leave  their  parents,  but  continue  to  live 
with  them  in  the  closest  alliance  until  February  or  March,  at 
which  time  they  separate  in  order  to  pair  off.  At  this  time,  also, 
the  union  of  the  father  and  mother  comes  to  an  end,  and  they 
generally  form  a  fresh  alliance. 

Partridges  are  of  a  shy  and  timid  nature,  which  shows  itself  in 
many  ways.  Nor  are  their  suspicious  fears  unjustifiable,  when  it 
is  remembered  how  numerous  are  their  foes,  for  foxes  and  birds  of 
prey  make  continual  and  unsparing  war  upon  them.  The  latter 
especially  are  particularly  dreaded.  At  the  mere  sight  of  one  of 
the  Falcon  tribe  a  Partridge  will  stop  as  though  struck  with 
stupor,  and  so  overcome  with  fear  as  almost  to  be  incapable  of 
concealing  "itself,  remaining  absolutely  immovable  ;  and  it  is  not 
until  the  dreaded  enemy  is  gone  that  it  regains  self-control. 

When  a  bird  of  prey  dashes  at  one  of  them  unsuccessfully  when 
in  cover,  no  human  power  is  able  to  make  it  abandon  its  retreat, 
and  any  one  can  then  lay  hands  on  it  without  difficulty.  A 
Partridge  has  even  been  known  to  allow  itself  to  be  stifled  with 
smoke  in  its  hiding-place  rather  than  again  expose  itself  to  the 
claw  of  the  Falcon,  Vulture,  or  Sparrow-hawk. 

The  knowledge  of  these  facts  has  suggested  a  very  simple  and 
effectual  method  of  killing  Partridges  successfully.  This  con- 
sists in  frightening  them  with  the  help  of  an  artificial  bird  of 
prey,  attached  to  the  tail  of  a  kite  flown  over  them.  While  the 
Partridges  are  paralysed  by  fright  from  this  deception,  the 
sportsmen  advance  and  make  the  birds  flush  within  easy  shooting 
distance. 

Notwithstanding  their  wild  nature,  Partridges  are  susceptible 
of  domestication,  and,  with  care  and  gentleness,  they  may  be 
rendered  very  tame.  Girardin  relates  that  a  Grey  Partridge, 
reared  by  a  Carthusian,  became  so  familiar  that  it  followed  its 
protector  about  like  a  dog.  Willoughby  states  that  an  inhabitant 
of  the  county  of  Sussex  succeeded  in  taming  a  whole  covey  of  Par- 
tridges, and  was  in  the  habit  of  driving  them  before  him  like  a 
flock  of  Geese.  Tournefort  relates  that  formerly,  in  the  Isle  of 
Chio,  flocks  of  Red-legged  Partridges  were  reared  which  allowed 
themselves  to  be  driven  about  in  exactly  the  same  way;  and  Sonini 
speaks  of  two  Red-legged  Partridges  which  an  inhabitant  of 


PAETRIDGES.  415 

Aboukir  had  managed  to  tame.  All  these  facts  abundantly  prove 
that,  with  a  little  patience,  it  would  be  possible  to  raise  the 
Partridge  to  the  dignity  of  a  domestic  farm-yard  fowl. 

The  Partridge  is  highly  esteemed  by  epicures ;  it  is  also  the 
delight  of  the  sportsman,  because  it  lies  well  to  dogs.  On  account 
of  its  abundance,  especially  of  the  Grey  variety,  this  may  be 
called  the  "  favourite  game  "  of  the  French  empire.  Partridge- 
shooting,  moreover,  is  what  is  generally  chosen  for  the  education 
of  the  inexperienced  shot ;  the  dog,  too,  by  its  pursuit,  acquires 
such  sagacity  that  renders  him  a  valuable  assistant  to  the  disciple 
of  St.  Hubert. 

Let  us  now  take  a  rapid  glance  at  the  various  species  of  the 
Partridge.  The  Grey  Partridge  (Perdix  cinerea)  is  the  most 
common ;  it  is  very  plentiful  over  the  whole  of  Central  Europe, 
the  North  of  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Great  Britain. 
In  these  countries  it  frequents  the  cultivated  districts,  the  vast 
plains  covered  with  crops,  and  the  artificial  meadows,  in  all  of 
which  it  lives  and  breeds.  This  bird  is  not  altogether  harmless  to 
the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  as,  after  seed-time,  it  is  not  satisfied 
with  the  grain  left  on  the  surface,  but  digs  out  those  that  are 
growing.  It  also  devours  the  young  green  shoots  of  corn,  and 
attacks  the  ears  when  they  come  to  maturity.  Its  increase  on  a 
large  scale  might,  therefore,  produce  serious  mischief,  which  would 
hardly  be  compensated  for  by  the  services  which  it  renders  in 
destroying  worms,  insects,  and  grubs. 

The  Grey  Partridge  furnishes  a  variety  of  smaller  size,  the 
Migratory  Partridge,  which  is  not  known  in  England.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  vagrant  character,  and  forms  a  singular  con- 
trast to  the  stay-at-home  habits  of  the  genus  generally.  It  makes 
its  appearance  in  large  flocks  at  the  most  diverse  seasons  and  in 
the  most  varied  latitudes.  Not  migratory  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  its  journeys  seem  undertaken  under  the  influence  of 
some  unknown  cause,  and  are  wanting  in  regularity  and  con- 
stancy. It  does  not  always  follow  the  same  route,  and  its  journeys 
are  intermittent.  This  bird  is  of  a  very  shy  nature,  and  is  fre- 
quently met  with  in  the  East  (Turkey,  Syria,  and  Egypt) ;  it  v 
sometimes  noticed  in  France,  where  it  is  called  the  Dama? 
Partridge. 


PARTRIDGES.  417 

Contrary  to  the  Grey  Partridge,  the  Red-legged,  and  those 
allied  to  it,  have  the  tarsi  provided  with  tubercles. 

The  Red-legged  or  Guernsey  Partridge  owes  its  name  to  the 
predominant  colour  of  its  plumage,  and  also  to  the  pink  shade 
of  its  beak,  tarsi,  and  feet.  Uncultivated  wastes,  thinly  covered 
with  heath,  and  undulating  uplands  adapted  to  the  vine,  are  its 
favourite  resorts.  In  France  it  is  principally  found  in  the  south  ; 
in  the  northern  departments  it  is  not  so  plentiful  as  the  Common 
Grey  Partridge.  It  is  also  a  native  of  Spain  and  Italy,  and  is 
very  common  in  portions  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  brush-clad  mountains  are  its  home,  and  in  fine  weather  it 
ventures  even  as  far  as  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow.  It  is 
very  fond  of  grapes  and  the  edible  variety  of  snails.  In  some 
parts  of  France  it  is  scarce  ;  the  Jura,  the  Upper  and  Lower  Alps, 
the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  and  the  Pyrenees  are  the  districts 
where  it  is  most  abundant.  In  Greece,  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor 
it  is  more  plentiful. 

Another  variety,  the  Rock  Partridge,  or  Gambra,  which  differs 
but  little  from  the  Red-legged  Partridge,  is  almost  unknown  in 
France.  Its  habitat  is  Spain,  Corsica,  Sicily,  and  Calabria. 

The  COLIN,  VIRGINIAN  or  AMERICAN  PARTRIDGE  (Ortyx  vir- 
ginianus,  Wilson),  has  a  thick  and  convex  beak,  smooth  tarsi, 
and  a  longer  tail  than  the  Partridge.  These  characteristics  would 
hardly  entitle  us  to  make  any  difference  as  to  genus,  if  a  study 
of  their  habits  had  not  revealed  certain  details  which  justify  us  in 
doing  so. 

When  these  birds  are  flushed,  they  do  not  all  of  them  fly 
towards  the  same  spot,  but  disperse  in  every  direction,  and 
conceal  themselves  in  the  brushwood  or  trees.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances, if  one  can  only  manage  to  re-find  them,  all  may  be 
killed  in  succession.  They  are  more  prolific  than  the  Partridge, 
also  less  suspicious,  and  will  readily  enter  snares  set  for  them. 

These  birds  are  in  the  habit  of  making  arrangements  for  sleeping 
which  are  peculiar,  to  say  the  least.  All  the  individuals  of  the 
same  flock  begin  by  placing  themselves  in  a  circle  at  a  certain 
distance  from  each  other;  then  they  all  walk  backwards,  con- 
verging towards  a  common  centre,  until  they  are  close  to  one 
another,  side  to  side :  in  this  position  they  pass  the  night.  By 

E  E 


418 


GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 


means  of  this  precaution  the  whole  flock  can  see  in  all  directions, 
and  fly  away  at  once  in  case  of  danger,  without  one  interfering 
with  the  other.  Each  bird,  in  fact,  has  a  clear  space  in  front  of 
him,  and  runs  no  risk  of  being  impeded  by  his  companions  when 
desirous  of  taking  flight. 

The  Colin  is  also  distinguished  from  the  Partridge  by  its 
vagrant  habits.  In  this  respect  it  resembles  the  Quail,  but  its 
peregrinations  are  irregular,  and  do  not  embrace  anything  like 
the  same  extent  of  range.  This  bird  is  a  native  of  North  America, 


Fig.  168. — Californian  Colin  (Lophortyx  californicus,  Bonaparte). 

where  it  abounds.  It  exists  in  some  districts  of  the  United 
States  to  such  an  extent  that,  during  one  winter,  in  a  circuit  of 
not  more  than  five  or  six  leagues  in  extent,  as  many  as  twelve 
thousand  head  have  been  killed,  without  any  apparent  diminution 
of  the  species  in  the  ensuing  spring. 

Having  been  brought  to  England  and  looked  after,  the  Vir- 
ginian has  bred.  Similar  attempts  have  been  made  in  France, 
but  with  less  success,  owing  to  a  want  of  perseverance.  The  Colin 
would  be  an  excellent  addition  to  our  game  birds,  as  its  flesh  is 
delicate,  and  it  lies  well  before  pointers  or  setters. 

The  Californian  Colin  (Fig.  168),  familiarly  known  as  the  Cali- 
fornian Quail,  is  a  beautiful  bird,  adorned  with  a  crest,  the  upper 
portion  of\  which  points  forward.  They  are  only  found  on  the 


\ 


\ 


PEANOOLINS. 


419 


Pacific  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  On  the  high  grounds 
which  form  the  margin  of  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento  River 
they  are  extremely  numerous. 

Another  variety  of  Colin,  figured  by  Audubon,  is  also  a  resident 
of  California,  where  it  is  called  the  Solitary  Partridge. 

FRANCOLINS  are  distinguished  from  Partridges  by  a  stronger  and 
more  elongated  bill,  by  a  more  largely  developed  tail,  and  by 
the  existence,  in  the  male,  of  one  or  two  sharp  spurs.  They  also 
differ  in  their  habits,  for  they  frequent  wooded  and  marshy  dis- 
tricts, where  they  subsist  on  berries,  seeds,  worms,  insects,  and 
young  bulbous  plants.  When  not  feeding,  they  are  almost  con- 
stantly perched  on  trees,  where  they  pass  the  night.  These 


Fig.  169.— Turnix  tachyclroma. 

peculiarities  exceptcd,  they  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
Partridge.  Their  flesh  is  highly  esteemed,  the  Francolin  taking 
the  first  place  among  our  game  birds. 

A  beautiful  variety  of  Francolin  is  found  in  the  South  of  China. 
Its  favourite  haunt  is  among  the  dwarf  palmetto  on  the  hill-sides. 
It  lies  well  to  dogs,  but  is  so  quick  in  flushing,  and  so  rapid  in 
flight,  that  even  the  best  shots  miss  them.  They  are  quite  as 
large  as  the  Grey  Partridge. 

Unfortunately,   in   Europe  the   Francolin  is  tending   towards 

EE2 


420  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

extinction,  for  its  wild  nature  prevents  it  accommodating  itself  to 
a  restricted  range.  It  is  found  on  the  southern  coasts  of  the  Black 
Sea,  in  Sicily,  and  the  island  of  Cyprus.  There  are  other  species 
inhabiting  Africa  and  India. 

The  COTURNIX  is  closely  allied  to  the  Quail ;  the  only  physical 
distinction  between  them  is  the  absence  of  the  back  toe.  It  fre- 
quents sandy  districts  and  plains  covered  with  high  grass.  It 
runs  very  swiftly,  and  but  rarely  flies.  Should  it  be  compelled, 
however,  to  do  so,  its  course  is  seldom  more  than  one  or  two 
yards  above  the  ground,  and  of  very  short  duration.  Dropping, 
it  then  stubbornly  persists  in  remaining  on  the  ground,  and 
prefers  being  caught  to  making  a  fresh  attempt  on  the  wing. 
Its  flesh  is  excellent. 

A  European  species,  the  Turnix  tacky droma  (rapid  runner), 
(Fig.  169),  inhabits  Sicily,  the  South  of  Spain,  and  the  North  of 
Africa. 

The  Sunda  Isles  produce  a  species  of  Quail,  the  warlike  in- 
stincts of  which  furnish  an  amusement  for  the  barbarous  tastes  of 
the  inhabitants,  who  regularly  pit  them  one  against  the  other, 
betting  largely  on  the  result,  just  as  the  English  used  to  do  on 
cock-fights. 

TlNAMIDES. 

All  the  birds  of  this  family  belong  to  South  America.  They 
are  the  representatives  of  the  Partridge  on  that  continent.  Their 
essential  characteristics  are — a  slender  and  medium-sized  beak ; 
tarsi  rather  long,  and  provided  with  nodosities  ;  the  back  toe  either 
very  short  or  altogether  wanting — at  all  events,  no  use  in  walking 
can  be  made  of  it  from  its  elevated  position ;  the  wings  and  tail 
short,  the  latter  sometimes  deficient. 

This  family  comprises  four  genera,  all  very  closely  allied  to  one 
another ;  these  are  the  Tinamus,  the  Nothures,  the  Rkyncotes, 
and  the  Eudromes.  "We  shall  confine  our  remarks  to  their  nature 
and  characteristics. 

These  birds  are  naturally  stupid,  and  cannot  habituate  them- 
selves to  captivity.  They  live  in  small  flocks,  except  during 
the  breeding  season.  They  fly  heavily,  alwaj^s  in  a  straight 
line,  but  are  swift  runners.  Some  species  manifest  such  slag- 


MEGAPODIIXSL  421 

gishness  that  they  will  remain  the  entire  day  without  moving, 
and  will  not  even  take  the  trouble  to  escape  from  their  enemies. 
They  have  the  habit  of  rolling  themselves  in  the  dust,  and  fre- 
quent indifferently  cultivated  ground,  grassy  meadows,  or  thick 
woods.  Except  in  rare  instances,  they  roost  upon  the  ground. 
They  are  crepuscular — that  is,  they  seek  their  food  in  the  early 
mornings  and  evenings,  and  even  by  moonlight.  '  Their  selection 
of  nutriment  is  frugivorous,  granivorous,  insectivorous,  and  vermi- 
vorous.  They  make  their  nests  on  the  ground,  and  lay  twice  a  year 
seven  or  eight  eggs.  Their  flesh  is  good,  and  much  sought  after. 
Tinamus  tataupa  (Swainson)  may  be  taken  as  a  representative 
of  the  order.  Mr.  Darwin,  in  his  "  Journal  of  Researches  in  the 
Countries  visited  by  H.M.S.  Beagle"  describes  this  bird. 

CHIONID^E. 

The  birds  belonging  to  this  family  are  characterised  by  a  short, 
crooked,  and  stout  bill,  long  and  pointed  wings,  a  middling-sized 
tail,  and  a  merely  rudimentary  back  toe.  The  size  of  the  Chionides 
varies  between  the  Partridge  and  the  Pigeon.  The  species  of 
Chionis,  Tinochore,  and  Attagis  are  included  in  this  family. 

The  Chionides  are  remarkable  for  their  marine  habits ;  they  fre- 
quent the  sea -beach,  and  feed  on  sea- weed  and  animal  remains. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  all  southern  countries.  The  Tinockores 
and  the  Attagis  are  natives  of  Chili  and  Paraguay  :  their  habits 
are  not  known. 

MEGAPODID^;. 

The  distinctive  features  of  this  family  are  as  follows  :  the  bill 
straight  and  slender ;  the  tarsi  long  and  stout ;  the  feet  tetra- 
dachylous,  and  furnished  with  long  and  strong  claws.  This  family 
comprises  three  genera:  the  Megapodius,  Alecthelia,  and  Talegallus. 

The  Megapodii  are  but  little  known.  All  that  has  been  ascer- 
tained is,  that  they  inhabit  marshy  localities,  fly  but  little,  and 
run  like  Partridges.  They  lay  each  of  their  eggs  in  a  separate 
hole,  and  leave  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The 
young  birds  are  able  to  dispense  with  maternal  assistance  and  to 
provide  for  their  own  wants  on  leaving  the  shell.  These  birds 
inhabit  the  isles  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


422  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

The  AlecthelicB  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  the  Megapodii,  and 
are  natives  of  the  same  places  :  their  habits  have  not  been  studied 
as  yet. 

The  Talegalli,  or  Tavons,  inhabit  Australia  and  New  Guinea. 
They  live  in  low  brushwood  adjacent  to  the  sea.  These  birds  have 
a  curious  plan  in  building  their  nests.  They  scrape  together  a  large 
quantity  of  dry  leaves,  of  which  they  form  a  conical  mound  five 
or  six  feet  high.  On  the  top  of  this  heap  they  make  a  hole,  in 
which  the  female  drops  two  or  three  eggs,  one  on  the  top  of  the 
other.  The  heat  produced  by  fermentation,  joined  with  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  gives  sufficient  warmth  to  hatch  them. 

PHASIANID^;. 

This  family  is  divided  into  several  genera  or  tribes ;  namely, 
Pheasants,  Peacocks,  Pintados,  Turkeys,  and  Alectors. 

The  PHEASANT  tribe  comprises  not  only  Pheasants  proper,  but 
also  the  Domestic  Fowls,  the  Argus,  Tragopans,  Roulouls,  &c. 
Their  characteristics  are  as  follows  : — The  head  bare  ;  bill  stout; 
wings  short  and  flight  heavy;  tail  largely  developed;  plumage 
extremely  brilliant,  and  sometimes  splendid. 

All  these  birds  were  originally  natives  of  Asia ;  some  have  been 
naturalised  over  nearly  the  whole  face  of  the  earth  since  time 
immemorial ;  the  Pheasant,  however,  is  not  so  widely  spread, 
although  its  range  has  been  much  increased. 

The  Pheasant  is  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary  length  of  its 
tail,  the  middle  feathers  of  which  in  one  species,  Reeves's  Phea- 
sant (Lyramaticus  Reevesii),  sometimes  attain  a  length  of  seven 
or  eight  feet.  It  is  a  bird  of  slender  make,  of  an  elegant  form, 
and  the  males  are  adorned  with  brilliant  plumage ;  but  the  hens 
wear  a  much  more  unpretending  attire.  The  sides  of  the  face, 
and  round  the  eyes,  are  bare  and  tuberculous.  The  stronger  sex 
are  provided  with  spurs. 

There  are  many  species  of  Pheasant,  but  there  is  no  obvious 
difference  in  their  habits.  We  shall,  therefore,  content  ourselves 
with  giving  an  account  of  the  Common  Pheasant  (Fig.  170),  which 
is  the  species  most  widely  spread  through  Europe. 

The  introduction  of  the  Pheasant  into  Europe  dates  at  a  very 
early  age,  if  it  is  true  that  it  goes  back  to  the  expedition  of  the 


PHEASANTS. 


42-3 


Argonauts,  about  1300  B.C.  The  companions  of  Jason  met  with 
this  bird  on  the  banks  of  the  Phasis,  in  Colchis,  whence  its  name 
is  derived.  Struck  with  its  beauty,  they  carried  it  back  with 
them  into  Greece,  whence  it  gradually  spread  over  a  large  portion 
of  the  European  continent.  The  Greeks,  believing  it  to  be 
indigenous  to  the  banks  of  the  Caucasian  Hiver,  called  it  the 
"  Bird  of  Phasis;"  subsequently,  however,  it  was  ascertained  that 
it  also  inhabited  the  whole  of  the  South  of  Asia  (China,  Cochin- 
China,  Bengal,  &c.). 


Fig.  170. — Common  Pheasants  (P/iasianus  colchicus,  Linn.). 

At  the  present  day  this  bird  is  found  in  France,  Great  Britain, 
Holland,  Germany,  and  even  Sweden. 

Pheasants  prefer  wooded  slopes  or  marshy  plains.  Their  food  is 
of  a  varied  character,  and  is  composed  of  grain,  berries,  worms, 
insects,  and  snails.  They  are  shy  and  timid  in  their  nature, 
taking  flight  at  the  slightest  indication  of  danger.  They  live  in 
solitude  up  to  the  breeding  season,  when  the  male  birds  select  their 


PHEASANTS.  425 

mates,  for  they  are  polygamous.  On  these  occasions  they  engage 
in  such  desperate  conflicts  that  the  weaker  bird  is  often  killed. 

The  hen  Pheasant  makes  her  nest  on  the  ground,  in  the  midst  of 
some  dense  thicket,  and  lays  from  twelve  to  twenty  eggs,  which 
require  twenty-four  days  to  hatch. 

The  mother  does  not  manifest  that  care  and  solicitude  for  her 
young  which  are  so  marked  in  the  majority  of  other  birds  ;  she 
does  not  even  specially  recognise  her  own  progeny,  for  she  pays 
equal  attention  to  all  the  young  of  her  race  that  surround  her. 
We  must  not,  however,  expect  to  find  much  maternal  love  in  a 
bird  which  does  not  shrink  from  breaking  her  own  eggs  to  gratify 
an  unnatural  appetite. 

The  Pheasant  is  not  remarkable  for  its  intelligence,  for,  in  spite 
of  its  suspicious  nature,  it  falls  an  easy  victim  to  the  poacher. 

Pheasants,  although  they  breed  in  a  wild  state  in  our  climate, 
are  principally  raised  in  vast  enclosures  called  pheasantries,  where 
all  the  necessaries  to  existence  are  provided  for  them.  As  the 
females  are  bad  mothers,  it  is  no  unusual  thing  for  their  eggs 
to  be  hatched  by  Domestic  Fowls.  During  the  first  two  months 
of  existence  the  young  Pheasants  require  the  greatest  care,  for 
they  are  predisposed  to  numerous  maladies.  Their  favourite  food 
is  ants'  eggs. 

The  flesh  of  the  mature  is  very  savoury,  but  rather  dry,  and 
epicures  consider  that  it  ought  not  to  be  eaten  till  hung  a  long 
time,  when  it  is  said  to  be  "  high/'  a  requisite  which  by  analogy 
has  extended  to  other  game.  There  is  one  very  curious  pecu- 
liarity common  to  certain  birds  belonging  to  the  family  of  which 
we  have  been  speaking,  and  which  is  especially  remarkable 
in  the  Pheasants — it  is  that  when  old  females  become  unfruitful 
they  assume  the  plumage  of  males.  It  is  said  that  young 
Pheasants  undergo  the  same  change  when  deprived  of  their 
reproductive  organs. 

The  Golden  Pheasant  (Phasianus  pictus),  Fig.  171,  and  the 
Silver  Pheasant  (P.  nychthemerus,  Linn.),  are  two  beautiful  birds, 
originally  from  China  and  Japan,  and  now  naturalised  to  Europe. 
The  former,  clothed  in  purple  and  gold,  bears  a  golden-yellow 
tuft  on  its  head  ;  the  black-and-white  costume  of  the  latter  is  not 
inferior  in  beauty  to  the  preceding.  Linnceus  has  named  them. 


COCKS.  427 

Nychthemerus  (the  night  and  the  day).  There  are  also  the  Ring- 
necked  or  Collared  Pheasant,  slightly  different  from  the  Common 
Pheasant,  which  for  some  years  has  propagated  rapidly  in  France 
and  England;  Reeves's  Pheasant  (Phasianus  veneratus,  Temm.), 
indigenous  to  China,  where  it  is  rather  rare,  and  very  highly  prized 
for  the  beauty  of  its  plumage  and  the  extraordinary  length  of  its 
tail — it  is  said  that  the  exportation  of  this  bird  is  severely  inter- 
dicted ;  and  lastty,  the  beautiful  Lady  Amherst's  Pheasant,  so  called 
because  that  lady  brought  two  living  specimens  to  Europe.  "  I  pass 
thus  some  and  of  the  best/'  as  is  said  in  Hernani,  the  French 
comedy. 

The  ARGUS  (Argus  giganteus,  Temm.),  Fig.  173,  a  bird  with 
magnificent  plumage,  which  inhabits  the  forests  of  Java  and 
Sumatra,  takes  its  place  beside  the  Pheasants,  from  which  it  only 
differs  in  having  the  tarsi  longer  and  unprovided  with  spurs,  and 
by  the  extraordinary  development  of  the  secondary  feathers  of  the 
wings  in  the  male.  The  tail  is  large  and  round,  and  the  two 
middle  feathers  are  extremely  long  and  quite  straight.  When 
paraded,  as  it  struts  round  the  female,  spreading  its  wings  and 
tail,  this  bird  presents  to  the  dazzled  eye  of  the  spectator  two 
splendid  bronze- coloured  fans,  upon  which  are  sprinkled  a  pro- 
fusion of  ocellated  markings  much  resembling  eyes :  it  owes  its 
name  of  Argus  to  these  spots.  In  a  state  of  quiescence  the  wings 
are  folded  on  the  sides,  and  attract  little  attention.  Only  in  the 
male  bird  is  the  gorgeous  display  of  colouring  to  be  found.  The 
Argus  is  very  timid ;  its  habits  are  little  known. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  COCK  ( Gallus)  are  as  follows  : — 
A  middling-sized,  curved,  and  strong  beak ;  head  surmounted  by 
a  fleshy,  red,  and  denticulated  crest,  the  lower  jaw  furnished  with 
two  hanging  gills,  equally  red  and  fleshy;  rather  long  tarsi,  armed 
with  sharp  spurs ;  short,  concave,  and  obtuse  wings ;  tectiforin 
tail,  arched  and  falling  in  plumes,  with  very  developed  medium 
feathers ;  brilliant  plumage,  with  metallic  reflections.  This 
description  applies  exclusively  to  male  birds.  Hens,  more  humble 
in  their  costume,  are  not  gifted  with  these  exterior  advantages ; 
their  plumage  is  generally  dull  and  without  attraction,  their 
straight  and  slightly-raised  tails  are  limited  to  an  ordinary  pro- 
portion ;  their  crest  is  reduced  to  the  most  simple  excrescence, 


Fig.  173.  -  Argu-s  (Pkasianus  Arace,  Latham). 


COCKS.  429 

and  in  certain  species  entirely  disappears ;  lastly,  their  legs 
are  without  the  murderous  spur  with  which  the  male  is  armed. 
They  are  also  smaller  and  less  vociferous  than  the  male. 

The  domestication  of  this  family  dates  from  ante-historic  times, 
so  that  we  can  only  raise  conjectures  as  to  the  original  country  and 
species  from  which  the  numerous  varieties  sprang  which  we  now 
find  spread  throughout  the  world.  The  species,  however,  is  pro- 
bably one  of  those  now  living  in  a  wild  state  in  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago.  They  may  perhaps  constitute  some  of  the 
types  which  have  given  birth  to  our  principal  domestic  races,  and 
which  are  separated  into  a  number  of  varieties. 

Whatever  may  be  the  opinion  adopted,  we  know  that  amongst 
the  species  indigenous  to  Asia  are  the  Bankiva  Cock  (Gatlus 
Bankwa,  Linn.),  which  so  nearly  resembles  our  village  Chanticleer 
as  to  be  often  confused  with  it  ; — the  bird,  known  as  Jungle-fowl 
by  Indian  sportsmen,  inhabits  Java,  Sumatra,  the  Philippines, 
and  Hindostaii :  it  is  sometimes  called  Sonnerat's  Cock  ( Gallus 
Sonneratn,  Latham) ; — the  Bronzed  Cock  (Gallus  ceneus,  Temm.), 
the  Fork-tailed  Cock  (Gallus  furcatus,  Temm.),  and  the  Giant 
Cock,  or  Kulm  Cock  (Gallus  giganteus,  Jardine),  the  largest 
species  known.  These  are  considered,  not  without  reason,  the 
founders  of  our  most  extensive  races.  The  last  mentioned  lives 
both  in  a  wild  and  domestic  state  in  Java,  Sumatra,  and  India 
proper.  The  Negro  Cock  offers  a  very  remarkable  case  of  contrast, 
for  the  crest,  gills,  epidermis,  periosteum,  and  feathers  of  this 
species  are  black,  but  the  flesh  is  white.  The  Negro  Cock,  very 
largely  spread  over  Belgium  and  Germany,  still  lives  in  freedom 
in  the  Indies.  All  these  species  inhabit  thick  forests,  and  their 
manners  are  entirely  unknown.  Consequently,  without  further 
delay,  we  arrive  at  the  description  of  the  Domestic  Cock. 

The  Cock  is  thick-set  and  massive,  but  without  heaviness.  His 
upright  and  bold  walk  denotes  his  pride.  Without  being  an 
habitual  runner,  he  moves  with  rapidity,  but  when  driven  to  use 
his  wings  his  incapacity  reveals  itself;  it  is  with  difficulty  he  raises 
himself  from  the  ground,  as  if  nature  had  destined  him  to  live 
always  by  the  side  of  man,  attached  to  the  earth  which 
feeds  them  both.  The  Cock  is  a  perfect  model  of  a  sultan ; 
he  attaches  an  entire  seraglio  to  his  train.  His  love  is  a 


430 


GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 


curious  mixture  of  delicate  attentions  and  revolting  brutalities. 
See  him  walking  in  the  midst  of  his  companions,  he  assumes 
an  air  at  once  proud  and  defiant.  He  directs  his  wives,  pro- 
tects them,  watches  them  with  restless  tenderness,  and  if  he  finds 
a  savoury  morsel  he  unselfishly  parts  with  it.  When  the  time 
for  feeding  comes,  he  softens  his  voice  to  invite  them  to  come 
and  peck  up  the  grain  spread  upon  the  ground ;  again,  he  is 
cruel  and  brutal  both  to  Hens  and  chickens.  Of  an  ardent 
character,  the  Cock  cannot  suffer  a  rival  at  his  side ;  thus  battles 


Fig.  174.— Cock,  Hen,  and  Chickens  (Gallus,  Briss.). 

are  inevitable  when  two  Cocks  inhabit  the  same  poultry- yard. 
With  flashing  eyes,  head  lowered,  and  feathers  of  the  neck  bristled, 
the  two  adversaries  observe  each  other  for  a  time  in  silence.  At 
last  the  storm  breaks  with  violence ;  they  precipitate  themselves 
upon  each  other,  and  fearlessly  fight  with  both  beak  and  spurs 
till  the  earth  is  reddened  with  their  blood.  These  battles, 
which  sometimes  last  an  hour,  only  cease  to  recommence  the 
next  day,  or  till  one  of  the  champions  succumbs,  acknow- 


COCK-FIGHTING.  431 

lodging  the  supremacy  of  the  victor,  and  abandoning  the  place. 
The  Cock  sometimes  employs  his  courage  and  strength  in 
more  noble  contests,  for  he  does  not  fear  to  expose  his  life  for 
the  defence  of  the  poultry-yard.  Man,  who  knows  how  to  utilise 
even  the  bad  instincts  of  animals,  has  not  failed  to  employ  the 
natural  combativeness  of  the  Cock  in  ministering  to  his  plea- 
sures. In  olden  times  the  Greeks  delighted  in  cock-fights; 
the  Cocks  of  Rhodes  were  particularly  renowned  for  their  game 
qualities.  It  is  related  that  Themistocles,  marching  against  the 
Persians,  who  had  invaded  Greece,  and  seeing  the  troops  dis- 
couraged before  the  battle,  recalled  to  them  the  obstinacy 
Cocks  displayed  in  their  combats,  and  then  added,  "  These  animals 
display  their  courage  for  the  single  pleasure  of  victory;  but 
you,  soldiers !  you  go  to  fight  for  your  gods,  for  the  tombs 
of  your  fathers,  for  your  children,  for  your  freedom."  These 
words  reanimated  the  failing  ardour  of  the  Greek  troops,  and 
the  Persians  were  vanquished.  In  memory  of  this  event  the 
Athenians  consecrated  a  special  day  in  the  year  to  cock-fighting. 
The  Homans  borrowed  this  pastime  from  the  Greeks.  Even  in 
the  present  day  cock-fighting  is  still  in  favour  in  various  parts 
of  the  East.  In  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Manilla  this  amusement  is 
carried  to  the  length  of  folly.  The  inhabitants  of  these  countries 
scarcely  ever  travel  without  a  favourite  Cock,  which  they  carry 
under  their  arm.  It  is  by  no  means  rare  to  find  gamblers  bet- 
ting not  only  their  fortune,  but  even  their  wives  or  daughters, 
upon  the  strength  and  dexterity  of  a  champion  bird.  In 
England  the  barbarous  practice  of  cock-fighting  in  former  days 
was  a  favourite  pastime,  nor  is  it  now  entirely  abandoned. 
Henry  VIII.,  we  read,  instituted  rules  for  this  then  popular 
sport.  From  his  example  most  of  the  English  kings  patronised  it. 
Charles  II.  and  James  II.  took  it  under  their  special  protection. 
At  that  time  cock-fighting  was  almost  a  science,  which  had  volu- 
minous codes,  laws,  and  regulations,  determining  the  circum- 
stances of  the  combat,  and  settling  the  interests  of  betters.  Now, 
however,  it  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  a  few  of  the  lower 
classes,  the  matches  generally  taking  place  on  one  or  other  of  the 
few  holidays  which  the  hard-working  mechanics  have  at  their  dis- 
posal. On  these  occasions  the  crowd  gathers,  the  bets  are  arranged, 


COCKS.  433 

which  sometimes  rise  to  considerable  sums.  The  spectators  con- 
template with  barbarous  pleasure  the  result  of  the  anticipated 
combat,  as  both  adversaries,  armed  with  artificial  spurs  of  pointed 
steel,  are  placed  in  the  cock-pit.  When  left  to  themselves,  they 
attack  each  other  furiously,  using  their  steel  spurs  with  great 
adroitness  (Fig.  175).  The  fight  only  terminates  by  the  death  of 
one  of  the  combatants,  and  the  victor  is  exhibited  in  triumph 
to  the  crowd.  But  his  triumph  is  of  short  duration ;  the  late 
hero  called  again  to  do  battle,  the  spur  of  a  more  powerful 
adversary  strikes  a  vital  part,  and  he  in  his  turn  expires  in  the 
arena.  The  victor  upon  whom  formerly  so  much  interest  rested, 
who  excited  so  much  admiration  and  such  enthusiastic  praises,  is 
now  in  turn  defeated — the  former  favourite  of  Fortune  is  deserted 
by  the  fickle  goddess.  In  the  meantime  the  other  birds  are 
ceaselessly  heard  crowing  defiance,  and  proclaiming  their  eagerness 
for  the  fray.  In  the  poultry-yard  the  Game  Cock  is  quarrelsome> 
and  even  cruel ;  but  this  may  be  said  of  poultry  generally.  If 
one  of  their  companions  is  sick  or  wounded,  they  unite  to  put 
an  end  at  once  to  his  sufferings  and  life.  A  stranger  in  the 
yard  is  certain  to  meet  with  a  bad  reception ;  the  others  set  on  it 
in  a  body,  and  only  cease  hostilities  at  the  end  of  several  days,  or 
in  the  case  of  the  Cock,  who  is  their  lord  and  master,  taking  the 
new  arrival  under  his  protection.  Hens  feed  on  anything  that 
comes  in  their  way  ;  this  renders  them  valuable  to  country-people, 
for  they  yield  a  profit  without  occasioning  more  expense  than 
that  of  a  few  handfuls  of  corn  in  the  morning  and  evening; 
Grain,  herbs,  worms,  insects,  carrion,  rubbish  of  all  kinds,  are 
alike  acceptable  to  them. 

In  France  Hens  begin  to  have  eggs  towards  the  month  of 
February,  and  cease  about  the  beginning  of  autumn,  when  they 
moult.  By  giving  them  heating  food,  they  can  be  made  to  lay 
even  in  winter.  They  generally  produce  an  egg  daily — sometimes, 
but  rarely,  two.  Pairing  exercises  no  influence  in  this  respect ; 
that  is  to  say,  Hens  have  eggs  without  a  Cock,  but  these  are  clear  or 
unfruitful,  and  can  only  be  used  for  food.  The  cry  of  the  Hen  when 
about  to  lay  is  well  known.  When  she  has  produced  about  twenty 
eggs  a  desire  to  sit  is  manifested :  if  this  is  permitted,  twelve  or 
fifteen  eggs,  placed  in  a  basket  filled  with  straw,  are  given  her ; 

F  F 


434  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

when,  uttering  a  peculiar  clucking  and  spreading  her  wings,  she 
sits  upon  her  treasures,  and  covers  them  with  so  much  perseverance 
as  sometimes  to  forget  to  eat  or  drink,  unless  food  is  brought  her. 
During  twenty-one  days  the  eggs  are  maintained  at  a  uniform 
temperature  of  about  40°  Centigrade.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
the  young  chickens  burst  their  shell.  The  Hen  fulfils  the  duties 
of  a  mother  with  incomparable  devotion  and  tenderness ;  she  follows 
her  young  brood  step  by  step,  calls  them  to  her  when  they  stray, 
and  seeks  nourishment  for  them,  thinking  little  of  her  own  wants 
till  theirs  are  satisfied.  Against  all  aggressors,  with  every  feather 
bristling  and  angry  eyes,  she  warns  them,  protects  them,  and  de- 
fends them.  If  a  bird  of  prey  appears,  she  hastens  to  meet  it, 
and  assumes  such  a  menacing  attitude,  that  few  will  not  imme- 
diately take  to  flight.  The  chickens  develop  rapidly.  At  the 
end  of  a  month  the  crest  of  the  males  shows  itself ;  at  six  months 
they  have  acquired  the  vigour  necessary  for  reproduction ;  females 
begin  to  lay  about  the  same  time.  At  the  age  of  three  months 
transforming  them  into  capons  and  pullets  is  performed — names 
given  to  those  individuals  which  have  been  deprived  of  the  sexual 
organs.  In  this  condition  they  are  fattened,  and  acquire  a  superior 
flavour  and  delicacy  of  flesh.  Pullets  and  capons,  in  losing  the 
generative  faculty,  lose  also  the  inherent  characteristics  of  their 
sex.  The  temper  of  the  male  becomes  so  mild  that  he  has  been 
made  to  perform  maternal  duties  when  a  Hen  has  deserted  her 
chickens  to  recommence  laying,  by  plucking  out  feathers  from 
his  stomach,  and  then  rubbing  the  part  with  nettles ;  the  chickens 
gliding  under,  allay  the  pain  which  the  stings  have  caused,  and 
thus  the  bird  derives  pleasure  from  his  wards,  and  soon  attaches 
himself  to  them.  The  departments  of  Sarthe  and  Ain  are  cele- 
brated for  the  pullets  there  raised. 

Hatching  is  sometimes  performed  by  artificial  incubation.  In 
olden  times  the  Egyptians  had  recourse  to  this  means  to  increase 
the  production  of  poultry.  The  method  which  was  used,  and 
which  is  still  employed  in  modern  Egypt,  consists  in  placing  the 
eggs  in  a  furnace  maintained  for  twenty- one  days  at  a  uniform 
temperature  of  40°  C.  By  this  means  a  hundred  millions  of  Fowls 
are  annually  produced  in  Egypt.  Simple  as  this  operation  appears, 
it  is  not  without  difficulty,  or  the  climate  of  Africa  assists,  for 


GUINEA-FOWLS.  435 

attempts  in  France  have  never  been  crowned  with  success.  In 
the  Sunda  Islands  artificial  incubation  is  accomplished  in 
another  manner :  here  men  are  found  who,  for  a  small  salary, 
remain  for  three  weeks  stretched  out  and  immovable  upon  eggs 
placed  in  ashes.  Antiquity  has  bequeathed  to  us  the  story  of  a 
curious  incubation  made  at  Home  by  the  Empress  Livia.  This 
lady  being  pregnant,  and  desiring  a  son,  thought  of  hatching 
an  egg  in  her  bosom,  and  drawing  a  prognostic  from  the  sex  of 
the  chicken.  The  operation  succeeded — the  egg  having  produced 
a  Cock,  the  empress  concluded  that  her  wishes  would  be  granted. 
These  were  realised,  for  she  brought  into  the  world  Tiberius — rather 
a  wicked  bird,  as  every  one  knows. 

The  TRAGOPANS  (Ceriornis,  Swainson)  and  the  JUNGLE-FOWLS 
belong  to  India  or  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  are  all  remarkable 
for  the  brilliancy  of  their  plumage.  The  HOUPIFERES,  or,  as  their 
name  expresses,  Tuft-bearers,  strongly  resemble  our  Domestic 
Fowl.  The  Tragopan,  which  Buffon.  calls  the  Horned  Pheasant, 
looks  like  a  cross  between  the  Domestic  Fowl  and  the  Pheasant, 
but  is  distinguished  by  two  small  horns,  which  decorate  the  head 
of  the  male.  Lastly,  the  Jungle-fowls  live  in  a  wild  state,  being 
as  yet  unknown  domesticated,  consequently  little  can  be  said  of 
their  habits,  but  they  probably  differ  but  slightly  from  those  of  the 
Pheasants. 

PINTADOS  (Guinea-fowls)  have  remarkably  small  heads  for  their 
size ;  beak  and  neck  short ;  the  tail  equally  short  and  drooping ; 
the  tarsus  very  low,  and  destitute  of  spurs ;  body  round ;  wings 
short  and  concave ;  on  the  head  is  a  hard  crest  of  a  reddish  blue, 
sometimes  replaced  in  mature  birds  by  a  tuft ;  the  wattles  are 
fleshy,  and  hang  under  the  beak. 

The  Common  Guinea-fowl  (Fig.  176)  has  a  slate-coloured 
plumage,  covered  with  white  spots  ;  it  is  indigenous  to  Africa, 
and  its  introduction  into  Europe  dates  from  far-distant  times ;  it 
was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  former  made  it  an 
emblem  of  paternal  affection.  According  to  Greek  writers,  the 
sisters  of  Meleager  felt  such  grief  at  the  death  of  their  brother,  that 
Diana,  to  terminate  their  woes,  changed  them  into  Guinea-fowls. 
The  goddess,  wishing  that  their  plumage  should  bear  the  trace  of 
their  tears,  marked  it  with  white  spots. 

FF2 


436 


GALLINACEOUS  B1BDS. 


The  Romans,  who  highly  esteemed  the  flesh  of  these  birds, 
propagated  them  with  the  greatest  care  to  figure  at  their  feasts,  but 
after  the  invasion  of  the  barbarians  they  disappeared  from  Europe, 
and  during  the  Middle  Ages  we  never  hear  of  them.  The  Portu- 
guese-re-discovered  them  in  Africa  on  their  return  from  the 
Indies,  and  again  imported  them  into  Europe,  where  they  have 
since  multiplied  to  a  great  extent.  But  the  turbulent  and  quarrel- 
some character  of  these  birds  and  their  noisy  and  discordant  cries 
are  serious  obstacles  to  their  becoming  favourites;  they  have  also 


,     Fig.  176.-  Guinea-fowl  (Numida  cristata,  Latham). 

ceaseless  quarrels  with  the  Hens  and  Turkeys,  their  neighbours,  and 
although  not  so  strong  as  their  antagonists,  they  fight  them  fear- 
lessly. They  have  been  seen  to  attack  the  young  of  other  birds, 
and  split  their  skulls  with  a  blow  of  their  beaks.  They  show 
great  attachment  to  their  own  young,  yet  they  occupy  themselves 
but  little  with  the  cares  of  a  family ;  consequently  their  progeny 
is  generally  brought  up  by  Hens  or  Turkeys.  Although  bad 
nurses,  their  fecundity  is  very  great,  and  when  well  fed  they 
lay  as  many  as  a  hundred  eggs  in  a  year :  these  are  much 
sought  after,  and  epicures  prefer  them  to  those  of  the  Hen.  Their 
flesh,  though  good,  is  not  so  much  esteemed.  There  are  now 
several  species  known  in  a  wild  state  in  Africa,  and  in  a  domestic 


TUBKEYS,  437 

state  in  Europe.  They  are  numerous  in  Arabia,  where  they 
are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  marshy  places,  in  little  bands 
composed  of  a  male  and  several  females.  Transported  into  America 
after  the  discovery  of  that  continent,  the  common  variety  is  now 
perfectly  acclimated  there,  and  is  even  to  be  found  wild  in  some 
of  the  vast  forests  and  savannahs  of  that  country. 

TURKEYS  are  birds  of  large  size,  easily  distinguished  from 
other  Gallinacean  fowls  by  the  following  characteristics : — Bare 
heads  and  necks,  decorated  with  fleshy  appendages — those  of  the 
neck,  which  fall  under  the  head  in  front  of  the  bird,  are  capable 
of  being  inflated  and  much  enlarged  under  the  influence  of  love  or 
anger  ;  a  brush  of  long  and  straight  hairs  hangs  at  the  base  of 
the  neck ;  the  tarsi  are  strong,  and  provided  with  slightly  - 
developed  spurs ;  lastly,  the  tail  is  round,  of  moderate  length,  and 
at  the  will  of  the  bird  can  be  expanded  like  a  fan. 

The  Turkey  was  originally  imported  from  North  America, 
where  it  still  lives  in  a  wild  state;  it  is  frequently  met  with 
in  the  forests  which  border  the  large  western  rivers  of  that  country, 
such  as  the  Mississippi,  Missouri,  and  the  Ohio,  and  it  must  be 
studied  there  to  acquire  a  correct  idea  of  its  habits.  The  Domestic 
Turkey  is  not  so  handsome  in  plumage  as  is  the  Wild,  but  the 
former  generally  much  exceeds  the  latter  in  size.  The  colour  of  the 
Wild  Turkey  is  brown,  mixed  with  blue  and  green,  giving  out  a 
diaphanous  metallic  brilliancy.  The  full-grown  male  bird  some- 
times measures  over  three  feet,  and  weighs  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  pounds.  The  American  naturalist,  Audubon,  speaks 
of  having  seen  one  which  was  upwards  of  thirty-six.  The  female 
is  much  smaller,  and  seldom  exceeds  ten  pounds  in  weight :  her 
plumage  cannot  vie  with  that  of  the  male  in  splendour.  Although 
it  does  not  appear  constructed  for  the  purpose,  the  mature  bird 
is  capable  of  taking  considerable  flights,  passing  with  ease  in 
its  wild  state  across  such  gigantic  rivers  as  the  Ohio,  Mississippi, 
and  Missouri,  which  in  every  direction  traverse  and  bisect  the 
middle  portion  of  the  great  North  American  continent ;  but  it,  as 
a  rule,  only  takes  wing  when  all  other  means  of  locomotion  are 
denied,  for  it  runs  with  surprising  rapidity,  distancing  the  common 
cur  dog  with  ease,  and  only  abates  its  speed  after  a  lengthened 
pursuit.  It  accomplishes  long  journeys  on  foot;  not,  however, 


438  GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 

caused  by  atmospheric  influence,  but  want  of  sustenance  in  the 
country  which  it  inhabits.  It  is  generally  towards  the  beginning 
of  October  that  these  migrations  commence.  The  Turkeys  then 
unite  in  troops  of  from  ten  to  a  hundred  individuals,  and  go 
towards  the  regions  which  they  have  chosen  for  their  new  abode ; 
the  males  form  a  separate  drove  from  the  females,  which  march  at 
their  sides,  surrounded  by  their  young  families.  The  necessity  of 
protecting  their  young  from  the  brutality  of  the  old  cocks,  who  will 
kill  them  if  opportunity  offers,  inspires  the  hen  Turkeys  with 
this  habit.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  emigrating  band  are 
stopped  by  a  water-course,  when  all  evince  great  agitation  by 
spreading  their  tails,  uttering  frequent  gobbles,  and  yielding 
themselves  to  extravagant  demonstrations.  At  the  end  of  a  day 
or  two,  after  having  inspected  the  neighbourhood,  they  mount 
upon  the  branches  of  some  of  the  highest  trees,  and  take  to  the  wing 
to  traverse  the  obstruction.  Some  of  the  young  ones  always  fall 
into  the  water,  but  they  know  perfectly  how  to  swim :  when  all 
have  reached  the  opposite  bank  they  run  hither  and  thither  as  if 
they  were  mad,  and  from  their  recklessness  at  this  time  it  is  very 
easy  to  approach  and  kill  them.  These  birds  pair  in  February  or 
March,  according  to  latitude  ;  the  females  produce  eggs  six  weeks 
afterwards.  At  this  time  the  hen  secretes  herself  in  a  place 
unknown  to  the  male,  as  he  would  break  the  eggs.  The  nest  is  an 
indentation  in  the  ground,  lined  with  soft  grasses,  moss,  and  dry 
leaves,  and  in  it  are  deposited  her  embryo  progeny,  which  are  sat 
upon  with  perseverance  deserving  praise.  In  this  respect  they 
are  superior  to  all  Gallinaceous  fowls,  even  surpassing  the  Domestic 
Hen.  When  the  mothers  leave  their  eggs  to  seek  food  they  are 
always  careful  to  cover  them  with  leaves,  the  better  to  screen 
them  from  the  sight  of  the  Fox,  Lynx,  or  Crow.  The  incubation 
lasts  about  thirty  days.  As  the  time  for  hatching  approaches,  no 
power  can  make  the  mother  leave  her  nest,  no  peril  will  cause  her 
to  desert  her  charge.  On  being  hatched,  the  young  Turkeys, 
under  the  protecting  care  of  the  old  bird,  are  led  to  sequestered 
feeding  grounds,  and  do  not  leave  her  till  the  end  of  several 
months.  Wild  Turkeys  have  many  formidable  enemies,  the  most 
destructive  being  Man,  next  the  Lynx  and  the  Eagle  Owl ;  they 
are,  therefore,  very  distrustful,  and  when  on  the  ground  secrete 


WILD  TUEKEY. 


439 


themselves  at  the  least  appearance  of  danger ;  but  if  perched  upon 
a  tree  they  are  less  guarded,  and  consequently  can  be  more  easily 
approached  by  the  sportsman.  On  a  misty,  moonlight  night 
American  hunters  take  their  posts  under  trees  where  Turkeys  com- 
monly perch.  In  this  situation  the  game  will  receive  several 


f. 


Fig.  177.— Wild  Turkey. 

discharges  without  making  the  slightest  attempt  to  escape,  although 
numbers  of  them  in  succession  may  have  been  killed.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  explain  this  apparent  apathy,  especially  when  we  know  their 
hurry  to  fly  before  the  Owl.  It  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  want  of 
sagacity  which  they  manifest  under  these  circumstances,  as  well  as 
to  their  ludicrous  aspect  and  eccentric  attitudes,  that  Turkeys  have 


440  GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 

gained  the  reputation  of  stupidity.  This  bird,  however,  sometimes 
gives  proofs  of  intelligence,  as  the  following  fact,  related  by  Audu- 
bon,  shows.  He  had  raised  a  Wild  Turkey  from  its  most  tender 
age,  which  had  become  extremely  tame,  but  the  love  of  indepen- 
dence remained  very  strong  in  the  bird,  for  it  could  not  accustom 
itself  to  the  pent-up  life  of  its  domestic  relations.  Thus  it  enjoyed 
the  greatest  freedom;  it  went  and  came,  passing  nearly  all  its  time 
in  the  woods,  only  returning  to  the  house  in  the  evening.  At  length 
it  ceased  to  come  back,  and  from  that  moment  dispensed  with 
visiting  its  birth-place.  Some  time  after,  Audubon,  whilst  hunting, 
perceived  a  superb  Wild  Turkey,  upon  which  he  set  his  dog  ;  but, 
to  his  great  surprise,  the  bird  did  not  fly,  and  the  dog,  instead  of 
seizing  it  when  it  was  overtaken,  stopped  and  turned  his  head 
towards  his  master  :  greater  still  was  the  hunter's  surprise  when, 
having  approached,  he  discovered  his  ancient  pensioner.  This 
Turkey  had  recognised  the  dog,  and  understood  that  it  would  do 
him  no  harm,  otherwise  it  would  have  scampered  off  immediately. 
Turkeys  feed  upon  herbs,  grasses,  fruits,  and  berries  of  every 
description  ;  they  are  partial  to  beech  and  other  nuts ;  and  their 
liking  for  wheat  and  maize  is  such  that  they  frequent  the 
neighbourhood  of  cultivated  fields,  where  they  make  the  greatest 
ravages.  They  also  occasionally  feed  upon  insects,  frogs,  and 
lizards.  The  large  destructive  grub  familiarly  known  as  the 
Tobacco  Worm  they  are  particularly  partial  to,  and  are  con- 
sequently much  encouraged  by  the  tobacco  planters.  In  a 
domestic  state  they  are  even  known  to  have  killed  and  eaten 
rats.  One  curious  peculiarity  in  the  history  of  the  Turkey 
is  its  horror  of  red;  the  sight  of  a  scarlet  object  throws  it 
into  the  most  comical  fury.  It  is  needless  for  us  to  vaunt  the 
flesh  of  the  Domestic  Turkey  ;  every  one  is  agreed  on  this  subject. 
We  will  only  say  that,  from  the  testimony  of  many  travellers  and 
naturalists,  the  flesh  of  a  Wild  Turkey,  killed  in  winter  or  spring, 
before  laying,  is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  Domestic  bird,  those 
coming  from  Southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  being  considered  by 
Americans  as  the  finest.  The  Turkey,  being  indigenous  to 
America,  was  naturally  unknown  to  the  ancients.  The  precise 
date  of  its  introduction  into  France  is  not  recorded.  According 
to  some,  it  was  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  to  others, 


PEACOCKS.  441 

only  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth.  Anderson  affirms 
that  the  first  Turkeys  raised  and  eaten  in  France  were  served  at 
the  marriage  of  Charles  IX.,  in  1570. 

The  Honduras  or  Ocellated  Turkey  (Meleagris  ocellata,  Cuvier) 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  Gallinaceans ;  its  plumage  is  mag- 
nificent ;  the  tail  is  enamelled  with  large  blue  eyes,  each  of  which 
is  surrounded  with  a  circle  of  brilliant  yellow  and  purple.  It 
inhabits  the  country  surrounding  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  Southern 
Mexico,  and  all  Central  America.  At  the  Regent's  Park  Gardens, 
London,  is  to  be  seen  a  splendid  hybrid,  bred  between  the  American 
Wild  Turkey  and  the  Honduras  species. 

The  tribe  of  PEACOCKS  comprehends  the  genera  Pavo  cristatus, 
Hist.  Anim. ;  Pavo  javanicus,  Horsfield ;  and  Lophophores.  The 
feature  which  essentially  distinguishes  Peacocks  from  other  Gal- 
linaceans is  the  immense  tail  with  which  nature  has  endowed 
them.  This  tail,  formed  of  long,  large,  and  tufted  feathers,  coloured 
with  the  richest  shades,  is  capable  of  being  raised  up  like  that  of 
a  Turkey.  When  one  contemplates  this  magnificent  appendage, 
in  which  purple  and  gold  vie  with  the  most  varying  colours  of  the 
emerald,  and  notices  the  innumerable  and  brilliant  eyes  with  which 
it  is  studded — when  with  delight  he  views  its  lofty  stature,  elegant 
shape,  noble  carriage,  and,  above  all,  a  slight  and  mobile  tuft, 
the  emblem  of  royalty,  crowning  its  head — one  cannot  help  being 
struck  with  lively  admiration,  and  spontaneously  according  the 
palm  of  beauty  to  the  privileged  being  which  unites  in  itself  so 
many  marvels.  The  Peacock  was  known  from  the  earliest  time  ; 
for  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  one  of  the  most  precious  products 
brought  from  Asia  by  King  Solomon's  ships.  It  made  its  first 
appearance  in  Greece  after  Alexander's  expedition  into  India. 
Alexander,  it  is  said,  was  so  astonished  at  the  sight  of  this  bird 
that  he  forbade  it  to  be  killed  under  the  severest  penalties.  For 
a  long  time  they  were  very  rare,  and  fetched  a  high  price  at  Athens, 
and  the  people  from  the  neighbouring  towns  assembled  in  crowds 
to  see  them.  From  the  Greeks  they  passed  to  the  Homans ;  but 
this  nation,  more  fond  of  the  pleasures  of  the  table  than  of 
spectacles,  soon  made  them  figure  in  their  feasts.  Peacocks 
consequently  were  rapidly  propagated  in  the  poultry-yards  of 
the  rich  patricians ;  and  some  of  the  emperors,  such  as  Yitellius 


442  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

and  Heliogabalus,  caused  dishes  of  the  heads  or  brains  of  Peacocks 
to  be  served:  from  this  cause  their  price  became  excessive  in 
Rome.  Little  by  little  they  spread  throughout  the  empire,  and 
thus  the  Peacock  has  become  naturalised  in  Europe.  During 
several  centuries  its  exquisite  and  delicate  flesh  was  in  very  great 
favour;  but  the  importation  of  the  Pheasant,  and  later  that 
of  the  Turkey,  brought  successful  rivals  for  table  honours.  The 
Peacock  is  now  bred  principally  to  please  the  eye ;  and  even 
when  it  does  make  its  appearance  at  some  ceremonious  repast,  it 
is  intended  more  to  gratify  the  eye  than  the  palate,  for  the  carcass 
is  invariably  decorated  with  the  resplendent  tail,  spread  out  in 
fan-shape.  The  Domestic  Peacock,  which  is  now  the  pride  of 
our  gardens  and  parks,  is  indigenous  to  India  and  the  isles  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago.  There  they  still  live  in  large  troops  in  the 
depths  of  the  forests.  They  are  so  abundant  in  localities,  that  it  is 
said  the  traveller,  Colonel  Williamson,  being  delayed  one  day  in 
the  district  of  Jungleterry,  counted  not  less  than  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  hundred.  The  Peacock  runs  with  such  rapidity  that  it  often 
escapes  from  pursuing  dogs ;  it  takes  to  the  wing  with  diffi- 
culty, and  flies  slowly,  though  it  can  prolong  its  flight  to  a  con- 
siderable distance.  It  feeds  upon  grain  of  all  kinds,  which  it 
swallows  without  crushing.  In  the  evening,  to  roost  for  the 
night,  it  perches  upon  the  limbs  of  the  highest  trees.  In  a  state 
of  domesticity  it  retains  this  fancy  for  elevated  places,  and  takes 
pleasure  in  mounting  on  the  roofs  of  houses,  upon  which  it  struts 
and  excites  itself,  scattering  tiles,  or  tearing  up  the  thatch,  as  the 
case  may  be;  for  the  devastating  instinct  appears  to  be  very 
strongly  developed  in  it  when  opportunity  offers.  This  bird  also 
commits  great  ravages  in  cultivated  fields.  The  Peacock  at  times 
utters  deafening  cries,  which  contrast  unpleasantly  with  its  daz- 
zling plumage — one  wishes  for  a  more  harmonious  voice  with 
such  a  magnificent  body;  but  what  animal  possesses  all  perfec- 
tions ?  It  is  polygamous.  At  the  commencement  of  the  spring 
the  male  displays  to  the  females  all  the  splendour  of  his  plumage ; 
he  struts,  spreads  his  tail,  delights  at  the  sight  of  his  own  figure, 
and  receives  with  pleasure  the  admiration  which  his  charms  draw 
forth.  His  vanity  knows  no  bounds ;  the  adulation  of  his  females 
is  not  sufficient  for  him,  he  must  have  eulogiums  from  man  also, 


PEACOCKS. 


443 


and  before  him  rejoices  to  display  all  the  riches  of  his  wonderful 
tail.  Complete  master  in  the  art  of  pleasing,  he  knows  how  to 
manage  the  transitions  of  light  and  shade  so  as  to  present  him- 
self to  the  greatest  advantage ;  and  when  he  has  been  gazed  at 


Fig.  178. — Domestic  Peacock  (2'avo  cristatus,  Wood). 

sufficiently,  by  reiterated  struts  he  marks  his  contentment.  At  the 
end  of  August  his  beautiful  plumage  falls  off,  not  to  come  forth 
again  till  the  spring.  It  is  said  that  the  Peacock  is  so  ashamed  of 
having  lost  that  which  was  his  pride,  that  he  then  shuns  the  sight  of 


444  GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 

man.  This  is  better  explained  by  tlie  fact  that  the  time  of  moult- 
ing is  for  this,  as  for  all  other  birds,  a  period  of  sickness ;  they 
consequently  retire  into  solitude,  to  find  there  the  calm  and  tran- 
quillity which  their  critical  state  demands.  The  Wild  Peahen  lays 
from  twenty  to  thirty  eggs  in  a  hole  hollowed  out  in  the  ground.  She 
is  much  less  fruitful  in  the  Domestic  state.  She  takes  the  greatest 
care  to  hide  her  nest  from  the  searching  eye  of  the  male,  which 
breaks  the  eggs  whenever  he  finds  them.  Incubation  lasts  from 
twenty-seven  to  thirty  days.  The  young  follow  their  mother  from 
their  birth  ;  at  six  months  they  are  reputed  adult,  and  attain 
their  full  development  at  three  years.  The  Peahen,  like  the  hen 
Pheasant  and  the  Common  Hen,  adopts  the  plumage  of  the  male 
when  age  has  rendered  her  unfruitful,  or  when,  by  a  premature 
atrophy,  her  eggs  have  become  sterile.  The  Peacock  lives  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  years ;  some  authors  have  wrongly  attributed 
to  them  the  longevity  of  a  century. 

The  POLYPLECTRONS  (Diplectron,  Yieillot)  owe  their  name  to  the 
superabundance  of  spurs  with  which  they  are  armed  ;  the  males 
always  possess  two,  sometimes  three.  The  plumage  of  these  birds, 
like  that  of  Peacocks,  is  sprinkled  with  glittering  ocellations ;  but 
their  tails  are  shorter,  and  not  susceptible  of  expansion.  There 
are  three  or  four  varieties  known,  which  inhabit  India,  China, 
and  the  isles  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo.  Their  manners  have  not 
yet  been  studied. 

IMPEYAN  PHEASANTS  are  little  better  known  than  the  Poly- 
plectrons.  They  prefer  cold  climates,  which  sufficiently  accounts 
for  their  predilection  for  the  elevated  ridges  of  the  Himalayas. 
No  one  has  as  yet  succeeded  in  acclimating  them  in  Europe. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  Gallinaceans ;  its  plumage, 
bedizened  with  the  most  lively  colours,  has  gained  for  it  in  India 
a  very  significant  name — that  of  the  "  Golden  Bird/7 

Under  the  name  of  A  lectors  (from  the  Greek  aAArwp),  Cuvier 
has  united  a  certain  number  of  American  birds  bearing  some 
resemblance  to  the  Cock,  and  has  divided  them  into  several 
varieties :  the  Hoccos,  Pauxis,  Penelopes,  Parraquas,  and  Hoazins. 

Hoccos  are  analogous  in  form  and  size  to  Turkeys,  of  which 
they  are  the  representatives  in  their  habitat,  Central  America, 
Guiana,  and  Brazil.  Deprived  of  spurs,  they  have  a  large  tuft 


HOCCOS. 

• 

upon  the  head,  formed  of  distorted  and  erectile  feathers.     They 


Fig.  179. — Impeyan  Pheasants  (Lophopkorus  Impeyanus,  Gould). 

live  in  numerous  troops  in  the  midst  of  forests,  and  feed  upon 


Tig.  180.— Curasaow,  or  Hocco  (Crax  alector,  Linn.). 

seeds,  berries,  and  buds.     Naturally  very  gentle,  they  readily  yield 
to  captivity,  when  they  become  familiar,  and  evince  pleasure  in 


446  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

g 

the  caresses  of  their  masters.  Sonnini  relates  that  he  has  seen 
them  wander  at  liberty  through  the  streets  of  Cayenne,  return 
to  their  homes  without  hesitation,  and  leap  upon  the  tables  to 
take  their  food.  Their  flesh  is  exquisite,  and  in  all  respects 
worthy  of  the  favour  of  epicures.  These  different  qualities  should 
cause  an  honourable  place  to  be  assigned  to  Hoccos  in  our  poultry- 
yards  ;  it  is,  therefore,  to  be  regretted  that  the  attempt  to  acclimate 
these  birds  made  by  the  Empress  Josephine,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  this  century,  have  not  been  renewed. 

GALEATED  CuRAssows,  or  PAuxis  (Ourax  pauxi,  Cuv.),  differ 
but  little  physically  from  the  Hoccos.  They  have  the  same  habits 
and  characteristics,  and  easily  habituate  themselves  to  servitude. 

GUANS  or  PENELOPES  (Penelope  cristata,  Gmelin),  and  PARRAQUAS 
(Latham),  are  two  genera  of  birds  strongly  resembling  each  other ; 
they  have  an  analogy  to  Pheasants,  but  only  on  account  of  their 
general  forms ;  in  short,  they  possess  the  confiding  and  peaceable 
nature  of  Hoccos  and  Pauxis,  and  easily  submit  to  the  domina- 
tion of  man.  Their  flesh  is  delicious  ;  they  also  deserve  to  be 
acclimated. 

The  HOAZINS  (Opisthocomus  cristatus,  Quoy  and  Gaimard) 
inhabit  the  savannahs  of  Guyana,  Their  flesh,  which  exhales  a 
strong  odour — due,  no  doubt,  to  the  vegetables  on  which  they  feed 
exclusively — is  far  from  being  agreeable. 


COLUMBIDJE. 

The  Columbidce  family  establish  a  transition  between  real 
Gallinaceans  and  Passerines  ;  in  short,  they  partake  of  the  nature 
of  both.  Whilst  they  approach  the  former  in  their  anatomical 
and  purely  material  characteristics,  such  as  the  structure  of  their 
beaks,  sternum,  and  crops,  they  resemble  the  latter  in  their  elegant 
forms,  peaceable  manners,  and  in  all  their  habits. 

Like  the  Passerines,  they  are  monogamists.  The  male  and  female 
build  their  nests  together,  and  share  the  cares  of  the  incubation  and 
education  of  their  young  ;  these,  when  born,  are  blind,  and  only 
covered  with  a  slight  down,  and  are  quite  unable  to  run  like  young 
Gallinaceans.  There  are  generally  two  Pigeons  hatched  at  the 


COLOMBI-GALLINES.  447 

same  time;  and  it  is  a  very  curious  fact  that  there  is  almost  always 
a  male  and  a  female.  They  do  not  quit  the  nest  till  they  have 
acquired  sufficient  strength  to  use  their  wings  and  fly.  During 
the  earliest  portion  of  their  existence  they  receive  no  other  nourish- 
ment from  their  parents  than  a  sort  of  pap  secreted  in  the  walls 
of  the  gullet ;  but  at  the  end  of  some  days  the  father  or  mother 
discharges  into  their  beaks  the  food  which  they  themselves  take. 
When  they  are  sufficiently  developed,  they  travel  with  the  adults 
in  large  flocks  to  seek  a  milder  climate  or  better  feeding  ground  : 
their  migrations  in  the  natural  state  occur  in  spring  and  autumn. 
"What  distinguishes  them  from  the  true  Gallinaceans  is  that 
they  have  a  thumb  inserted  even  with  the  other  toes,  and  that 
consequently  they  are  able  to  perch  ;  almost  all  Pigeons  pass  much 
of  their  lives  on  trees.  Their  food  consists  principally  of  seeds, 
berries,  and  fruits,  sometimes  insects,  and  a  peculiar  little  snail 
similar  to  that  found  in  the  Isle  of  France.  Their  flesh,  gene- 
rally good,  in  some  species,  such  as  the  Crowned  Goura,  acquires 
an  exquisite  flavour.  Thus  they  form  an  immense  part  in 
public  alimentation,  both  in  a  domestic  and  wild  state.  They 
are  shot  very  extensively  at  the  time  of  their  migration. 
Although  their  flight  is  noisy,  and  even  presents  some  appearance 
of  heaviness,  it  is  easy  and  sustained,  so  that  Pigeons  have 
been  known  to  accomplish  journeys  of  surprising  length  in  a 
few  hours. 

We  will  divide  the  Pigeons  into  three  families — the  Colombi- 
GallineSy  the  Colombes,  or,  properly  speaking,  Pigeons,  and 
the  Colombars. 

COLOMBI-  G  ALLTXES. 

A  certain  number  of  birds  rank  in  this  family,  which,  with  the 
general  forms  of  Pigeons,  still  preserve  the  habits  of  Gallinaceans  ; 
hence  the  mixed  name  of  Colombi-  Gallines.  Thus  they  constantly 
live  on  the  earth,  build  their  nests  there,  and  only  take  refuge 
upon  trees  to  pass  the  night  or  escape  from  danger.  They  run 
perfectly,  but  fly  badly,  and  are  sedentary ;  lastly,  some  species 
have  cephalic  nudities  and  fleshy  appendages,  or  long,  movable 
feathers  round  the  neck  like  the  male  of  the  Domestic  Fowl. 
Physically  they  are  characterised  by  a  slight  and  straight  beak, 


443 


.   GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 


and  by  rather  high  tarsi.  This  family  comprises  a  very  large 
number  of  species  spread  throughout  Central  and  South  America, 
the  isles  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  a  great  part  of  Africa. 
The  compass  of  this  work  will  not  permit  us  to  examine  all : 
we  will  merely  mention  the  most  remarkable,  the  Great  Crowned 
Pigeon  (Columba  coronata,  Latham),  very  common  in  New  Gruinea 
and  the  Moluccas.  The  plumage  of  this  bird  is  of  a  beautiful 
greyish  blue ;  its  head  is  ornamented  with  a  pretty  plume  of 
straight,  long,  and  tapering  feathers ;  it  is  about  the  size  of  a 


Fig.  181. — Crowned  Groura  (Phasianus  cristatus  indicus,  Latham). 

Domestic  Fowl,  and  very  highly  esteemed  for  the  qualities  of 
its  flesh  ;  consequently  the  inhabitants  of  the  above  islands  raise 
it  in  their  poultry-yards  (Fig.  181). 


COLOMBES. 

Colombes  have  slender  beaks,  long  wings,  and  short  tarsi. 
The  principal  species  are  the  Wood  Pigeons,  Common  Domestic 
Pigeons,  Carriers,  Turtle  Doves,  and  Passenger  Pigeons:  the 
first  three  are  indigenous  to  Europe. 

The  WOOD  PIGEONS  (Columba  (Enas,  Selby),  Fig.  182,  are  the 
largest  species  of  this  family;  their  plumage  is  slaty  grey, 


WOOD  PIGEONS.  449 

with  bluish,  green,  and  rose-coloured  reflections.  They  are 
spread  throughout  all  Europe,  but  chiefly  in  warm  and  tem- 
perate parts.  They  are  very  common  in  France,  where  they 
arrive  in  numerous  flocks  early  in  March,  generally  departing 
in  October  or  November  to  pass  the  winter  in  more  hospitable 
climates.  At  the  time  of  their  passage  the  Alpine  and 
Pyrenean  hunters  destroy  them  in  large  quantities.  The  Wood 
Pigeons  or  Cushats  inhabit  forests,  and  delight  among  the 
branches  of  large  trees.  They  feed  upon  acorns  and  beech- 
nuts, and  are  very  partial  to  cherries  and  strawberries.  With 
the  farmers  this  bird  is  far  from  a  favourite,  for  its  appetite  is 
insatiable,  and  it  is  alike  destructive  to  grain  in  the  ear  or  ger- 
minating. They  build  their  nests  in  lofty  trees.  The  female,  after 
having  chosen  a  place,  forms  the  nest  out  of  materials  which  the 
male  brings  her,  such  as  little 
dead  branches  which  it  detaches 
from  trees  by  the  aid  of  its  feet 
or  beak ;  it  never  picks  up  the 
boughs  which  strew  the  ground. 
This  nest  is  but  a  rude  shelter, 
scarcely  large  enough  to  contain 
the  young,  and  sometimes  falls 
to  pieces  before  they  are  able  to 
fly;  in  this  case  the  brood  re- 
tains, if  possible,  a  position  on 
the  large  branches  which  sup-  Fig.  m— TI«  wood  or  King  pigeon 

,     i     ,1  .  ^        ••••.  CEnas.  Selby). 

ported  their  previous  dwelling. 

Queests,  as  they  are  frequently  called,  generally  lay  in  March 
and  August.  Incubation  lasts  twelve  days,  and  the  young  can 
take  flight  about  two  weeks  afterwards.  During  all  the  time 
of  the  incubation  and  education  of  the  young  the  male  remains 
near  the  female,  constantly  cooing,  as  if  to  break  the  monotony 
of  her  occupation.  In  the  wild  state  Eing  Pigeons  are  distrustful 
and  difficult  of  approach,  but  their  characters  become  modified 
by  domestication,  or  even  by  an  independent  life  passed  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  man.  Thus  young  ones  taken  from  their  birth 
familiarise  themselves  without  difficulty,  and  do  not  appear  to 
regret  having  lost  their  liberty.  They  do  not  breed  in  this  con- 

G  G 


450  GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 

dition — or  at  least  we  do  not  know  how  to  make  them  do  so ;  it  is 
said  that  the  ancients  understood  this  art. 

Ring  Pigeons  are  seen  in  Paris  which  have  from  time  imme- 
morial chosen  a  domicile  in  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  at  the 
Luxembourg,  and  in  the  Champs  Elysees.  They  are  very  tame,  and 
come  almost  under  the  feet  of  promenaders.  Few  inhabitants  of 
Paris  have  not  seen  at  the  Tuileries  the  charming  spectacle  of 
an  old  man  who  attracts  round  him  numbers  of  Wood  Pigeons 
and  Sparrows,  to  which  he  distributes  crumbs  of  bread.  The 
confidence  they  show  to  this  kind  friend  as  an  acknowledgment 
of  his  goodness  is  wonderful ;  they  rest  upon  his  shoulders, 
take  the  bread  from  between  his  fingers,  and  even  from  his 
mouth,  and  allow  themselves  to  be  caressed  without  manifesting 
the  least  fright :  this  is  evidence  of  the  possibility  of  taming  Ring 
Pigeons. 

Wood  Pigeons  (Columba  CEnas)  have  many  traits  of  resem- 
blance to  Ring  Pigeons,  but  they  are  smaller,  justifying  the 
name  of  Little  Queest  which  is  sometimes  given  to  them  ;  their 
habits  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  preceding  species,  except 
that  they  build  their  nests  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  instead  of 
upon  the  branches,  as  the  former  species  do.  They  are  very 
plentiful  in  the  South  of  Europe  and  in  Africa.  They  leave 
France  regularly  in  the  month  of  October. 

WILD  ROCK  PIGEONS  (Columba  livia,  Selby)  delight  in  rocky 
and  arid  places.  They  depose  their  two  eggs  in  the  clefts  of  rocks 
and  ruins.  They  are  seldom  seen  in  Europe  in  a  state  of  com- 
plete liberty,  except  upon  some  parts  of  the  coasts  of  England 
and  Norway  and  certain  isles  of  the  Mediterranean.  They  will- 
ingly sacrifice  their  independence  to  live  in  pigeon-houses.  They 
are  generally  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  numerous  races  of 
our  Domestic  Pigeons. 

DOMESTIC  PIGEOKS  probably  sprang  from  the  Wild  Rock 
Pigeons.  They  are  of  two  kinds — the  Colombier  Pigeons  and  the 
Aviary  Pigeons.  The  former  enjoy  almost  complete  liberty ; 
they  traverse  the  country  all  day  to  seek  for  food,  and  sometimes 
even  return  to  a  wild  state.  The  latter  are  quite  tame,  and  the 
door  of  their  habitation  can  be  left  open  without  danger;  they  go 
a  little  distance,  and  always  return  to  their  domicile.  If  Domestic 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  451 

Pigeons  cause  some  harm  to  our  crops,  they  amply  compensate 
for  these  devastations  by  the  services  which  they  render  to  agri- 
culture. They  are  equally  valuable  to  the  breeder  and  consumer  ; 
the  former  derive  a  certain  profit  from  them,  and  the  latter  an 
agreeable  and  economical  article  of  food.  To  give  a  sufficient 
idea  of  the  resources  which  they  supply  to  public  alimentation, 
we  have  only  to  state  that  certain  species  lay  as  many  as  ten 
eggs  a  year.  Further,  they  supply  a  manure  which  is  very  effica- 
cious for  some  soils.  Raising  Pigeons  necessitates  certain  precau- 
tions which  cannot  be  neglected  without  bad  results :  the  greatest 
cleanliness  is  necessary  in  the  pigeon-house  or  aviary;  all  tur- 
bulent individuals  which  sow  discord,  and  often  injure  the 
fecundity  of  females,  must  be  excluded ;  and  the  races  must  be 
separated  as  much  as  possible  the  one  from  the  other,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  production  of  sterile  varieties.  Amongst  the 
Domestic  species  the  naturalist  can  study  at  leisure  the  manners 
of  Pigeons,  and  form  an  exact  idea  of  their  natures  and  inclina- 
tions; for  he  can  observe  them  from  their  first  steps,  making 
their  early  timid  endeavours  to  raise  themselves  in  the  air ;  after- 
wards noting  at  more  mature  age  the  evolutions  of  the  sexes, 
and  their  fidelity  to  each  other  through  years  after  pairing. 
We  will  examine  rapidly  the  principal  races  of  Domestic  Pigeons. 

The  first  is,  as  we  have  said,  the  Common  House  Pigeon, 
differing  slightly  from  the  Wild,  which  almost  exclusively  sup- 
ports the  population  of  Pigeon-breeders ;  this  is  sometimes  called 
the  Fugitive  Pigeon.  The  Blue  Rock  is  only  a  modification  of 
the  Wild  Rock  Pigeon ;  in  form  it  is,  however,  more  elegant, 
while  the  plumage  is  prettier.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fruitful 
species. 

The  Pouter  Pigeon  owes  its  name  to  the  faculty  which  it 
possesses  of  inflating  its  crop  to  an  immense  size  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  air.  This  peculiarity  often  destroys  them ;  indeed,  when 
feeding  their  young,  they  find  so  much  difficulty  in  causing  the 
seeds  which  they  have  swallowed  to  reascend  into  their  beaks, 
that  they  contract  a  malady  which  is  frequently  fatal. 

The  Roman  Pigeons,  thus  named  because  they  are  very  common 
in  Italy,  are  easily  recognised  from  the  circle  of  red  which 
surrounds  their  eyes. 

G  G  2 


452  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

The  Swift  Pigeon  is  of  small  size,  its  flight  is  light  and  rapid, 
and  its  fecundity  very  great. 

The  Carrier  Pigeons  belong  to  this  race.     They  are  celebrated 
for  their  attachment  to  their  birth-place,  or  to  the  spot  that  con- 
tains their  offspring,  and  for  the  intelligence  which  enables  them 
to  regain  their  native  countries  from  whatever  distance.     Trans- 
port them  miles  from  their  homes,  even  in  a  well-closed  basket, 
then  give  them  their  liberty,  and  after  a  time  they  will  return, 
without  the  slightest   hesitation,  to  the  place  from  which  they 
were  taken.     This  valuable  faculty  has  long  been  utilised,  espe- 
cially in  the  East.     The  Romans  made  use  of  Pigeons  as  mes- 
sengers.    Pliny  says  that  this  means  was  employed  by  Brutus 
and  Hirtius  to  concert  together  during  the  siege  of  a  town  by 
Marc  Antony.     At  the  siege  of  Ley  den,  in  1574,  the  Prince  of 
Orange  employed  Carrier  Pigeons  to  carry  on  a  correspondence 
with  the    besieged  town,  which  he  succeeded  in  freeing.      The 
Prince,  to  mark   his   acknowledgment  of  the   services   rendered 
by  these  sagacious  birds,  wished  them  to  be  fed  with  strawberries, 
and  their  bodies  to  be  embalmed  after  death.  We  learn  from  Pierre 
Belon,   the  naturalist,  that  in   his   time  navigators  from  Egypt 
and  Cyprus  took  Pigeons  upon  their  galleys,  and  liberated  them 
when  they  had  arrived  at  the  port  of  destination,  in  order  to 
announce  to  their  families  their  safe  journey.      In  our  century 
they  have  been  made  use  of  for  similar  purposes.     The  fluctua- 
tions of  the  Bourse  were  for  a   long   time  sent  from   Paris   to 

Brussels  by  means  of  Carrier  Pigeons. 

The  Tumbler  Pigeon  owes  its  name  to  its  curious  manner  of 

flying.     It  has  a  habit,  after  it  has  risen  to  a  certain  height,  of 
throwing  five  or  six  somersaults. 

The  Wheeling  Pigeon  describes  circles  like  birds  of  prey.     It 

is  turbulent,  and  ought  to  be  banished  from  pigeon-houses. 

The  Nun  Pigeon  is  recognised   by  a  kind  of  hood  formed  of 

raised  feathers,  which  covers  the  back  of  the  head  and  neck,  and 

to  which  it  owes  its  name.     It  flies  heavily,  but  is  very  familiar 

and  very  prolific. 

The  Fan-tailed  Pigeon  is   remarkable  for   its   tail,    which  is 

very  large,  and  raised  like  that  of  the  Peacock,  and  for  the  con- 


DOVES.  453 

vulsive  trembling  which  agitates  it,  especially  at  breeding-time. 
It  thrives  badly  in  an  aviary,  and  is  little  valued,  except  as  an 
object  of  curiosity. 

There  are  two  species  of  DOVES — the  Turtle  Dove  (Turtur 
communis,  Linn.)  and  the  Ring  Dove  (Turtur  risorius,  Selby). 
The  former  is  the  smallest  species  of  the  family  of  Colombida). 
They  are  found  throughout  Europe,  but  are  more  abundant  in 
the  south  than  the  north.  They  arrive  in  France  in  spring,  and 
depart  for  warmer  countries  at  the  end  of  summer.  They  build 
their  nests  in  large  trees  in  the  shady  and  most  retired  parts 
of  woods.  They  feed  on  seeds  and  berries.  After  harvest  they 
visit  stubbles  of  wheat  or  other  grain ;  the  abundant  nourish- 
ment which  they  there  find  makes  their  flesh  extremely  delicate 
and  nutritious.  Although  naturally  wild,  the  Turtle  Dove  is  easily 
tamed  when  taken  young,  when  it  evinces  great  attachment. 

The  RING  DOVE  is  indigenous  to  Africa,  where  it  lives  in  a 
state  of  freedom.  This  is  the  species  which,  in  Europe,  is  raised 
in  cages  and  aviaries.  In  certain  towns  of  Egypt,  particularly 
Alexandria  and  Cairo,  they  are  so  tame  that  they  walk  in  the 
streets,  and  even  enter  houses,  fearless  of  the  presence  of  occu- 
pants. They  are  prolific,  for  they  lay  every  month,  except 
during  the  moulting  season.  Their  cooing  somewhat  resembles 
a  laugh — hence  the  name  of  Laughing  Dove  which  has  been 
given  them.  The  ancients  made  the  Turtle  Dove  an  emblem  of 
tenderness.  This  honour  is  justified  by  the  kind  attention  which 
the  male  shows  the  female,  especially  during  the  period  of  incu- 
bation. 

The  PASSENGER  PIGEON  (Fig.  183)  is  the  Columba  migratoria 
of  many  authors  :  it  inhabits  North  America.  They  are  remark- 
able for  the  strength  and  rapidity  of  their  flight,  and  for  the 
migrations  which  they  accomplish. 

The  American  naturalist,  Audubon,  says,  "  Pigeons  have  been 
killed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New  York,  having  their  crops  still 
full  of  rice,  which  they  could  not  have  taken  nearer  than  the 
fields  of  Georgia  and  Carolina— six  or  seven  hundred  miles  dis- 
tant. As  their  digestion  is  sufficiently  rapid  to  entirely  decom- 
pose grain  in  the  space  of  twelve  hours,  it  follows  that  they 
must  have  travelled  the  above  space  at  the  rate  of  a  mile  a 


454 


GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 


minute.     One  of  these  birds,  if  able  to  keep  up  this  velocity, 
could  visit  the  European  continent  in  less  than  three  days." 

It  is  not  for  the  purpose  of  seeking  a  warmer  climate  that  they 
undertake  their  journeys,  but  to  procure  food  when  the  acorns 
become  scarce  in  the  woods  which  they  inhabit.  Their  migra- 
tions, consequently,  are  irregular  as  to  date.  Looking  at  the 
innumerable  and  closely-packed  masses  of  Passenger  Pigeons 
which  take  part  in  these  voyages  confuses  the  mind.  Audubon  one 


Fig.  183. — Passenger  Pigeons  (Ectopistes  migratoria,  Sw.). 

day  endeavoured  to  count  the  flocks  which  passed  above  him  in  one 
hour.  He  counted  a  hundred  and  sixty- three  in  twenty  minutes, 
but  he  was  soon  obliged  to  give  up,  the  flights  succeeded  each 
other  so  rapidly.  He  says  :  "  The  more  I  advanced,  the  more 
Pigeons  I  met.  The  air  was  literally  filled  with  them.  The  day- 
light, in  full  mid-day,  was  obscured  as  by  an  eclipse ;  the  dung 
fell  like  flakes  in  a  fall  of  snow ;  the  buzzing  of  their  wings 
stunned  me,  and  gave  me  a  sleepy  sensation."  These  Pigeons  are 


TRAVELLER  PIGEONS.  455 

endowed  with  very  strong  sight.  When  flying  at  a  considerable 
height  they  can  perfectly  distinguish  the  places  which  will  furnish 
them  with  the  means  of  subsistence.  Having  found  a  suitable 
country,  they  alight  upon  an  immense  space  of  ground,  and  in  a 
few  minutes  completely  ravage  it.  Large  quantities  of  them  can 
then  be  destroyed  without  any  apparent  diminution  in  their  num- 
ber. Some  hours  after  their  descent  they  again  take  to  flight,  and 
regain  their  nocturnal  domicile,  frequently  twenty  or  thirty  miles 
distant,  where  a  frightful  slaughter  is  often  made  amongst  them. 
Long  before  the  sun  sets  the  inhabitants  of  surrounding  counties 
await  them  with  horses,  carts,  gun?,  and  ammunition.  Some  even 
bring  flocks  of  pigs,  to  fatten  on  the  flesh  of  the  Pigeons  which 
the  destroyers  are  unable  to  carry  away.  Audubon,  who  assisted 
at  one  of  these  slaughters,  has  related  it  as  follows.  He  says : — 
"  Every  one  holds  himself  in  readiness,  with  eyes  directed  towards 
the  heavens.  Suddenly  a  general  cry  of  '  They  come  ! '  resounds. 
The  noise  which  they  made,  although  at  a  distance,  reminded  me 
of  a  strong  sea-breeze  amongst  the  cordage  of  a  ship,  the  sails  of 
which  are  furled.  When  they  passed  above  my  head  I  felt  a 
current  of  air  'which  astonished  me.  Thousands  were  already 
struck  down  by  men  armed  with  poles,  but  they  continued  to 
arrive  without  intermission.  Fires  were  lit,  and  it  was  then  a 
fantastic  sight  full  of  frightful  magnificence.  The  birds  pre- 
cipitated themselves  in  masses,  and  pitched  where  they  could, 
one  upon  the  other,  in  large  heaps  like  barrels.  Then  the 
branches  gave  way  under  the  weight,  cracked  and  fell,  bringing 
to  the  ground  and  crushing  the  closely-packed  flocks  which 
covered  every  part  of  the  trees.  It  was  a  lamentable  scene  of 
tumult  and  confusion.  In  vain  I  tried  to  speak,  or  even  to  call 
the  persons  nearest  to  me.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  I  could 
hear  the  guns  fire,  and  I  only  perceived  they  had  fired  by  seeing 
them  reload  their  arms.  Pigeons  continued  to  come,  and  it  was 
past  midnight  before  I  noticed  any  diminution  in  the  number  of 
the  arrivals.  The  uproar  continued  all  night.  At  last  the  day 
approached,  the  noise  began  to  abate  a  little,  and,  long  before  we 
could  distinguish  objects,  the  Pigeons  commenced  to  start  in  quite 
an  opposite  direction  to  that  in  which  they  had  come  in  the  even- 
ing. At  sunrise  all  that  were  capable  of  flying  had  disappeared. 


4.36  GALLINACEOUS  BIEDS. 

Now  it  was  the  Wolves'  turn,  the  howls  of  which  saluted  our  ears. 
Foxes,  Lynxes,  Cougars,  Bears,  Eats,  Opossums,  and  Martins, 
bounding,  running,  climbing,  pressed  to  the  quarry,  whilst  Eagles 
and  Falcons  of  different  species  flew  down  from  the  air  to  take 
their  part  of  such  rich  booty.  The  sportsmen  then,  in  their  turn, 
entered  into  the  midst  of  the  dead,  the  dying,  and  the  wounded. 
The  Pigeons  were  piled  in  heaps,  each  took  what  he  wished,  and 
the  Pigs  were  left  to  satiate  themselves  on  the  remainder." 

These  massacres  are  in  nowise  injurious  to  the  existence  of  this 
species.  In  short,  according  to  Audubon,  the  number  of  these 
Pigeons  becomes  doubled  or  quadrupled  in  a  single  year. 

COLOMBARS. 

This  family,  established  by  Levaillant,  comprises  some  species 
which  belong  entirely  to  the  hot  countries  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
These  birds  are  characterised  by  thick,  strong,  bent  beaks,  which 
enable  them  to  break  the  envelopes  of  the  fruits  which  serve  them 
for  food.  They  fly  less  rapidly  than  birds  of  the  Dove  family, 
and  coo  in  a  different  manner.  They  inhabit  woods,  and  build  in 
holes  in  trees.  Their  flesh  is  good.  The  principal  species  are 
found  in  Abyssinia,  Senegal,  and  the  Indian  Archipelago. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
SCANSORES,  OR  CLIMBERS. 

PEOPLE  will  be  strangely  mistaken  if  they  imagine  that  all  the 
birds  which  rank  in  this  order  possess  the  faculty  of  climbing.  In 
reality  it  is  only  the  privilege  of  some,  and  does  not  belong 
exclusively  even  to  them,  for  it  is  found  in  some  of  the  Passerines. 
The  essential  characteristic  of  the  Climbers  lies  in  this  organic 
disposition — that  the  external  toe,  instead  of  being  placed  in  front 
like  that  in  other  birds,  is  placed  behind,  by  the  side  of  the  thumb. 
For  this  reason  the  denomination  of  Climbers  has  been  substituted 
by  that  of  Zygodactyles,  which  is  used  by  Temminck,  Yieillot, 
and  others,  and  which  has  the  advantage  of  perfectly  express- 
ing the  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  order,  for  this  word 
signifies  fingers  disposed  in  pairs.  Thanks  to  the  formation  of 
their  feet,  the  Climbers  can  clasp  the  branches  of  trees  strongly ; 
thus  they  are  almost  continually  perched.  Their  flight  is  medium, 
being  neither  so  powerful  as  that  of  the  Raptores  nor  so  light  as 
that  of  the  Passerines.  These  birds  feed  upon  fruits  or  insects, 
according  to  the  strength  of  their  beaks.  They  chiefly  inhabit 
warm  countries,  and  their  colours  are  generally  brilliant.  Lastly, 
they  are  all  monogamists,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cuckoo.  This 
order  is  one  of  the  least  numerous  of  the  class  of  birds.  It  com- 
prehends but  few  families,  amongst  which  we  will  mention  the 
Parrots,  Toucans,  Cuckoos,  Woodpeckers,  and  Jacamars. 

PARROTS. 

Parrots  have  large,  strong,  and  round  beaks ;  the  upper  man- 
dible strongly  hooked  and  sharp  at  the  extremity,  extending 
beyond  the  lower,  which  is  rather  deeply  hollowed.  The  tongue, 


458  SCANSOKES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 

which,  is  thick,  fleshy,  and  movable,  is  terminated  by  a  cluster  of 
sinewy  papillse,  or  by  a  cartilaginous  gland.  The  tarsi  are  very 
short,  and  the  feet  perfected  to  such  a  degree  that  they  really 
become  hands,  able  to  seize,  hold,  and  retain  small  objects.  Their 
toes  are  supplied  with  strong  and  hooked  claws,  which  make 
these  birds  pre-eminently  Climbers.  With  the  exception  of  one 
single  species — the  Loriets  (Platycerdna  Vigorsia,  Sw.) — which 
have  rather  long  tarsi  and  straight  claws,  enabling  them  to  run 
with  some  rapidity,  the  Parrots,  on  the  contrary,  walk  with 
difficulty.  They  drag  along  the  ground  with  such  trouble  that 
they  rarely  descend  to  it,  and  only  under  pressing  circumstances. 
Besides,  they  find  all  the  necessaries  of  their  existence  on  trees. 
They  are  not  more  favoured  with  regard  to  their  flight,  and  we 
can  understand  that  it  should  be  so ;  for,  living  in  thick  woods, 
they  only  require  to  effect  trifling  changes  of  place,  such  as  from 
one  tree  to  another.  However,  some  species,  especially  the  smaller, 
are  capable  of  a  more  prolonged  and  effective  use  of  their  wings. 
According  to  Levaillant,  some  even  emigrate,  and  travel  hun- 
dreds of  miles  every  year ;  but  this  is  an  exception.  In  general, 
Parrots  are  sedentary,  and  willingly  remain  in  localities  without 
a  desire  to  leave. 

7  Sociable  in  their  dispositions,  they  assemble  in  more  or  less 
numerous  bands,  and  make  the  forests  re-echo  with  their  loud 
cries.  To  some  species  it  is  such  an  imperative  necessity  to  be 
near  each  other  and  live  in  common,  that  they  have  received 
from  naturalists  the  name  of  Inseparables.  At  breeding-time  each 
couple  isolate  themselves  for  the  purpose  of  reproduction.  The 
male  and  female  evince  the  greatest  attachment  to  each  other. 
The  females  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  hollows  of  trees  and  in  the 
crevices  of  rocks.  The  young  birds  are  quite  naked  when  hatched ; 
it  is  not  till  the  end  of  three  months  that  they  are  completely 
covered  with  feathers.  The  parent  birds  wait  upon  them  with  the 
greatest  solicitude,  and  become  threatening  when  approached  too 
closely  by  intruders. 

Essentially  frugivorous,  Parrots  prefer  the  fruits  of  the  palm, 
banana,  and  guava  trees.  They  may  be  seen  perched  upon  one 
foot,  using  the  other  to  bear  the  food  to  their  beaks,  and  retain  it 
there  till  eaten.  After  they  have  extracted  the  kernel  they  free 


PAEEOTS.  459 


it  from  its  envelope  and  swallow  it  in  particles.  They  often 
plantations  and  cause  great  devastation.  In  a  domestic  state  they 
arc  omnivorous.  Besides  seeds  and  grain,  they  eat  bread,  and 
even  raw  or  cooked  meat,  and  it  is  with  manifest  pleasure  that 
they  receive  bones  to  pick  ;  they  are  also  very  partial  to  sugar. 
It  is  well  known  that  bitter  almonds  and  parsley  act  upon  them 
as  violent  poisons.  They  drink  and  bathe  very  frequently  ;  in 
summer  they  evince  the  greatest  desire  to  plunge  into  water. 
Captive  Parrots  will  habituate  themselves,  if  permitted,  to  the  use 
of  wine  ;  it  produces  the  same  effect  on  them  as  on  the  human 
family,  viz.,  excites  their  loquacity  and  gaiety.  They  climb  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  which  has  nothing  of  the  abruptness  displayed 
by  other  birds  of  the  same  order.  They  accomplish  their  slow  and 
irregular  movements  by  the  help  of  the  beak  and  feet,  which 
lend  a  reciprocal  support.  Like  almost  all  birds  of  tropical 
regions,  Parrots  are  adorned  with  most  beautiful  colours,  green 
predominating;  then  comes  red,  and  finally  blue  and  yellow. 
They  have  often  largely-  developed  tails. 

Notwithstanding  their  prattling,  Parrots  are  the  favourites  of 
men,  from  their  remarkable  talent  of  imitation.  They  retain  and 
repeat  with  great  facility  words  which  they  have  learned  or  heard 
by  chance,  and  also  sometimes  imitate,  with  startling  resemblance, 
the  cries  of  animals,  the  sounds  of  different  musical  instru- 
ments, &c. 

By  the  words  that  they  utter  in  an  unexpected  manner,  Parrots 
contribute  to  our  amusement  and  diversion,  and  quite  become 
companions.  Is  it,  then,  to  be  wondered  at  that  these  birds 
have  been  eagerly  sought  since  their  introduction  into  Europe  ? 
Alexander  the  Great  brought  into  Greece  a  Parrot  which  he 
had  found  in  India.  These  birds  became  so  common  in  Eome 
at  the  time  of  the  emperors,  that  they  figured  in  their  sump- 
tuous repasts.  They  are  now  spread  throughout  Europe  in  a 
domestic  state. 

The  species  most  remarkable  for  their  mimic  babbling  faculties 
are  the  Grey  Parrot,  or  Jaco,  a  native  of  Africa,  and  the  Green 
Parrot,  from  the  West  Indies  and  Tropical  America. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  a  cardinal  paid  a  hundred  crowns  for 
a  Parrot  because  it  recited  the  Apostles'  Creed  correctly.  Monsieur 


460  SCANSOEES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 

de  la  Borde  relates  that  lie  lias  seen  a  Parrot  supply  tlie  place  of 
chaplain  to  a  ship,  for  he  recited  the  prayer  and  rosary  to  the 
sailors.  Levaillant  heard  a  Parrot  say  the  Lord's  Prayer  lying  on 
its  back,  placing  together  the  toes  of  its  feet  as  we  join  our  hands 
in  the  act  of  prayer.  Willoughby  mentions  a  Parrot  which,  when 
he  said  to  him,  "  Laugh,  Parrot ! "  immediately  burst  out  laughing, 
and  cried  out  an  instant  after,  "  0  the  great  fool  who  made  me 
laugh !  "  A  keeper  of  a  glass  shop  possessed  one  which,  when- 
ever he  broke  anything  or  knocked  over  a  vase,  invariably  ex- 
claimed, in  tones  of  anger,  "  Awkward  brute  !  he  never  does 
anything  else." 

"  We  have  seen  a  Parrot,"  says  Buffon,  "  which  had  grown  old 
with  his  master,  and  partaken  with  him  the  infirmities  of  age. 
Accustomed  to  hear  little  more  than  the  words,  '  I  am  ill/  when 
asked,  '  How  are  you,  Parrot — how  are  you  ? '  '  I  am  ill/  it  replied 
in  doleful  tones,  *  I  am  ill/  and  stretching  itself  on  the  hearth 
— '  I  am  ill/  '  "A  Parrot  from  Guinea,"  says  the  same  author, 
"  being  taught  on  the  journey  by  an  old  sailor,  learnt  his  rough 
voice  and  his  cough  so  perfectly  that  they  could  be  mistaken. 
Although  it  had  been  given  immediately  after  to  a  young  person, 
and  only  heard  his  voice,  it  did  not  forget  the  lessons  of  its 
former  master,  and  nothing  was  so  agreeable  as  to  hear  it  pass 
from  a  sweet  and  pleasant  voice  to  its  old  hoarseness  and  the 
cough  of  early  times." 

Goldsmith  relates  that  a  Parrot  belonging  to  King  Henry  YIIL, 
and  always  confined  in  a  chamber  bordering  upon  the  Thames, 
had  learnt  several  phrases  which  it  heard  repeated  by  the  boat- 
men and  passengers.  One  day  it  was  let  fall  into  the  Thames, 
when  it  cried  with  a  strong  voice,  "  A  boat !  a  boat !  twenty 
pounds  to  save  me !  "  A  waterman  immediately  threw  himself 
into  the  river,  thinking  that  some  one  was  drowning,  and  was 
much  surprised  to  find  it  was  only  a  bird.  Having  recognised 
the  king's  Parrot,  he  carried  it  to  the  palace,  claiming  the 
recompense  the  bird  had  promised  when  in  distress.  The  circum- 
stance was  related  to  Henry  YIIL,  who  laughed  much,  and  paid 
it  with  a  good  grace. 

The  Prince  Leon,  son  of  the  Emperor  Basil,  having  been 
condemned  to  death  by  his  father,  owed  his  life  to  his  Parrot, 


PABROTS.  461 

which,  in  repeating  the  lamentable  accents  several  times,  "  Alas  ! 
my  master  Leon  !  "  ended  by  touching  the  heart  of  this  barbarous 
father.  M.  Lemaout  says  : — "  In  a  town  of  Normandy  a  butcher's 
wife  beat  her  child  unmercifully  every  day.  The  infant  sank 
under  the  ill-treatment.  The  justice  of  man  made  no  remonstrance, 
but  a  Grey  Parrot  which  lived  in  the  house  of  a  rope -maker, 
opposite  to  that  of  the  butcher,  took  upon  itself  the  chastisement 
of  this  unnatural  mother.  It  continually  repeated  the  cries  which 
the  poor  child  uttered  when  he  saw  his  mother  rush  at  him  with 
the  rod  in  her  hand — *  What  for  ?  what  for  ? '  This  phrase  was 
uttered  by  the  bird  with  such  doleful  and  supplicating  accents, 
that  the  indignant  passers-by  entered  unexpectedly  into  the  shop, 
and  reproached  the  rope-maker  with  his  barbarity.  He  justified 
himself  by  showing  his  Parrot,  and  relating  the  history  of  his 
neighbour's  child.  After  some  months  the  woman,  pursued  by 
the  accusing  phrase  and  the  murmurs  of  public  opinion,  was 
obliged  to  sell  her  business  and  leave  the  village." 

The  Marquis  of  Langle,  in  his  "  Travels  in  Spain,"  writes  thus  : 
— "  I  saw  at  Madrid,  at  the  English  Consul's,  a  Parrot  which  has 
retained  a  quantity  of  things — an  incredible  number  of  stories  and 
anecdotes — which  it  retails  and  articulates  without  hesitation.  It 
spoke  Spanish,  murdered  French,  knew  some  verses  of  Racine, 
could  say  grace,  repeat  the  fable  of  the  Crow,  and  count  thirty 
louis.  They  dared  scarcely  hang  its  cage  at  the  windows  ;  for 
when  it  was  there,  and  the  weather  was  fine,  the  Parrot  talked 
ceaselessly.  It  said  everything  it  knew,  apostrophised  all  passers- 
by  (except  women),  and  talked  politics.  In  pronouncing  the  word 
Gibraltar  it  burst  out  laughing.  One  would  think  it  was  a  man 
who  laughed." 

An  English  gentleman  bought  a  Grey  Parrot  in  Bristol,  the 
intelligence  of  which  was  quite  extraordinary.  It  asked  for 
everything  it  wanted,  and  gave  orders :  it  sang  several  songs, 
and  whistled  some  airs  very  well,  beating  the  measure.  When 
it  made  a  false  note  it  recommenced,  and  never  committed  the 
mistake  again.  We  have  often,  when  passing  through  the 
Rue  Four-des-Flammes,  at  Montpellier,  heard  a  Parrot  which 
sung  and  articulated  most  distinctly  the  two  verses  of  this 


462  SCANSOEES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 

"  Quand  je  bois  du  vin  clairet, 
Tout  tourne,  tout  tourne  au  cabaret." 

Parrots  imitate  not  only  the  words,  but  even  the  gestures  of 
those  with  whom  they  come  in  contact.  Scaliger  knew  one  which 
repeated  the  songs  of  some  young  Savoyards,  and  imitated  their 
dances. 

These  birds  are  more  or  less  susceptible  of  education.     Some, 


Fig.  184. — The  Ara  Macaw  (Mucrocercus  (Sw.)  ararau/ia,  from  Braziliau  name).    , 

naturally  peaceable,  are  easily  tamed ;  others,  more  refractory, 
submit  to  captivity  unwillingly.  In  general,  when  they  are 
taken  young  they  attach  themselves  strongly  to  those  who  have 
care  of  them. 

Parrots  have  a  mania  for  using  their  beaks  upon  everything 
that  comes  in  their  way.  When  encaged  against  their  will  they 
utter  loud  cries,  and  sometimes  turn  their  fury  upon  the  bars  of 


PAEEOTS.  463 

their  prison.  They  have  been  known  to  pluck  and  even  tear  them- 
selves in  these  paroxysms.  Supplying  them  with  a  plaything  is 
the  only  means  of  keeping  them  quiet  under  such  circumstances. 

These  Climbers  are  endowed  with  remarkable  longevity.  The 
"  Memorandums  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  "  mention  a 
Parrot  that  lived  in  the  family  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  in 
Florence,  more  than  a  hundred  and  ten  years.  Vieillot  speaks  of 


Fig.  185. — Ringed  Parrakeet  (I'alceornis  torquatus,  Vig.). 

having  seen  one  near  Bordeaux  which  was  eighty-four  years  of 
age.  The  average  length  of  their  life  cannot,  however,  be  exactly 
ascertained. 

Parrots  rarely  breed  in  Europe ;  it  is  true  they  often  lay,  but 
the  eggs  are  sterile.  A  few  instances  have  been  known  in 
France  where,  under  favourable  circumstances,  they  have  per- 
petuated their  species.  Generally  all  that  we  see  in  our  tem- 
perate regions  are  brought  from  countries  where  the  majority 
have  been  taken  from  the  nest.  Different  means  are  employed 
to  capture  the  adults,  all  of  which  have  for  their  aim  to  stun 
them  for  an  instant,  in  order  to  paralyse  their  movements. 


464 


SCANSOEES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 


The  family  of  Parrots  comprises  four  principal  groups — 
the  Macaws,  Parrakeets,  Parrots  properly  speaking,  and  Cocka- 
toos. 

The  MACAWS  (Fig.  184),  the  largest  of  the  Parrots,  are  recog- 
nisable from  their  bare  cheeks  and  long  tapering  tails.  They  in- 
habit South  America,  and  are  arrayed  in  the  most  brilliant  colours. 
The  principal  species  are  the  Red,  the  Blue,  the  Green,  and  the 
Black  Macaws.  The  name  Arara,  by  which  they  are  known  in  their 


Fig.  186. — Love-birds  (Psittacula  taranta,  Gould). 

habitat  (Brazil),  describes  the  deafening  cries  which  they  utter. 
Yery  familiar,  they  tame  easily,  and  do  not  abuse  the  liberty  granted 
them,  for  they  never  move  far  from  their  dwelling-place,  and 
always  return  to  it.  They  like  the  caresses  and  attentions  of  people 
they  know,  but  do  not  care  for  strangers.  The  Green  Ara  is 
remarkable  for  its  aversion  to  children.  This  peculiarity  doubtless 
arises  from  the  fact  that  it  is  very  jealous,  and  that  it  often  sees 
children  receive  the  caresses  of  its  mistress.  The  Macaws  have 


PAEEOTS. 


465 


only  the  gift  of  imitation  in  a  slight  degree ;  they  are  scarcely 
able  to  retain  any  words,  and  articulate  badly. 

PARRAKEETS,  much  smaller  than  Macaws,  have,  like  them,  long 
and  tapering  tails,  but  their  cheeks  are  wholly  or  partially  feathered. 
Some  species,  which  resemble  the  preceding  group  by  being  more 
or  less  destitute  of  plumage  round  the  eyes,  for  this  reason  have 
received  the  name  of  Macaw-Parrakeets.  Parrakeets  are  highly 


Fig.  187. — Grey  Parrots  (Psittacus  erythacus,  Sw.). 

esteemed  for  their  vivacity,  gentleness,  and  the  facility  with  which 
they  learn  to  talk.  Their  plumage  is  generally  of  a  uniform  green  ; 
sometimes  it  is  varied  with  red  or  blue.  They  inhabit  South 
America,  the  islands  of  Oceania,  the  Indies,  Africa,  and  Senegal. 
The  TABTJAN  or  KING'S  PARROT  (Platycercus  scapulatus,  Vig.), 
which  inhabits  Australia,  belongs  to  this  group.  These  birds  form 
a  curious  exception  in  the  order  of  Climbers  by  their  terrestrial 

H  H 


4G6 


SCANSOKES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 


habits.     According  to  M.   J.  Verreaux,  they  never  perch  when 
pursued,  but  take  refuge  on  the  ground  among  the  herbage. 

PARROTS,  properly  speaking-,  are  distinguished  from  other  groups 
of  the  same  family  by  their  short  square  tails.  They  have  feathered 
cheeks  like  Parakeets,  and  their  size  is  intermediate  between  them 
and  the  Aras.  They  are  much  appreciated  on  account  of  their 
memory,  and  also  for  their  habit  of  repeating  what  they  hear. 
Parrots  are  divided  into  several  species,  founded  upon  the  size 
and  the  predominating  colour  of  the  plumage.  The  first  of 
these  is  generally  grey,  and  consists  only  of  the  Grey  Par- 
rot, or  Jaco,  indigenous  to  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  to  which 


Fig.  188. — Green  Parrot  (Pstttacus  umuzonicus,  Briss.j. 


the  chief  part  of  the  anecdotes  recounted  in  the  preceding  pages 
relate.  Next  comes  a  species  the  plumage  of  which  is  green ; 
the  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  Amazonian  Parrot.  The 
principal  colour  of  the  Lories  is  red ;  they  inhabit  the  Moluccas 
and.  New  Guinea.  Love-birds  (Fig.  186)  are  the  smallest  of  this 
group ;  their  plumage  varies  in  shades  according  to  the  climates. 
They  are  met  with  in  America,  Southern  Africa,  and  in  the  islands 
of  Oceania. 

COCKATOOS  have  tails  of  medium  length,  cheeks  feathered,  and 
head  surmounted  by  a  white,  yellow,  or  pink  tuft,  which  they  can 


TOUCANS. 


407 


raise  and  lower  at  will.  They  are  the  largest  among  the  race  of 
Parrots  of  the  Old  Continent.  They  inhabit  the  Indies  and  the 
isles  of  Oceania,  and  are  pretty,  graceful,  docile,  and  caressing, 
but  are  indifferent  talkers.  One  very  remarkable  species  of  this 
group  is  the  Microglosse  (little  tongue),  called  by  Levaillant  the 
"  Macaw  with  the  trumpet, "from  the  formation  of  its  tongue,  which 
is  cylindrical,  and  terminated  by  a  little  gland  slightly  hollowed 
at  the  extremity.  When  this  bird  has  reduced  into  fragments, 
by  the  help  of  its  jaws,  the  kernels  of  the  fruits  which  form  its 
nourishment,  it  seizes  the  pieces  by  means  of  the  hollow  which 
terminates  the  tongue,  and  having  tried  the  flavour,  projects 


Fig.  189. — Sulphur  Cockatoos  (Cacatua  suiphurea,  Wood). 

the  trumpet  in  front,  and  makes  it  pass  to  the  palate,  which  has 
the  function  of  causing  it  to  fall  into  the  throat.  This  curious 
mechanism  was  disclosed  by  Levaillant. 


TOUCANS. 

The  characteristic  of  the  birds  which  compose  the  family  of 
Toucans  is  their  enormous  beak.  This  is  much  longer  than 
the  head,  is  curved  at  its  extremity,  dentated  at  its  edges,  and 

H  II  2 


468 


SCANSOEES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 


possesses  a  projecting  bone  at  the  middle  of  the  upper  man- 
dible. It  is  not  so  heavy  to  bear,  and  incommodes  the  movements 
of  the  birds  less  than  might  be  supposed,  for  it  is  formed  of  a 
spongy  tissue,  the  numerous  cells  of  which  are  filled  with  air. 
Thus  it  is  very  weak,  and  does  not  serve  to  break,  or  even  to  bruise, 
fruits,  notwithstanding  the  idea  one  forms  at  first  sight  of  its 
strength,  for  it  is  not  even  capable  of  breaking  off  the  bark  of  trees, 
as  certain  authors  have  urged.  This  wonderful  bill  encloses  a  still 
more  strange  tongue  ;  very  straight,  and  as  long  as  the  beak,  which 

is  covered  on  each  side  with 
closely-packed  barbs,  similar 
to  a  feather,  the  use  of  which 
remains  a  complete  mystery 
to  us.  This  curious  instru- 
ment so  struck  the  naturalists 
of  Brazil,  where  many  Tou- 
cans are  found,  that  it  fur- 
nished these  birds  with  a 
name.  In  Brazilian  Toucan 
means  "feather." 

Toucans  feed  on  fruits  and 
insects  ;  they  live  in  bands  of 
from  six  to  ten,  in  damp  places 
where  the  palm  tree  flourishes, 
for  its  fruit  is  their  favourite 
food.  In  eating  they  seize 
the  fruit  with  the  extremity 
of  the  beak,  make  it  bounce 
Up  {n  the  air,  receive  it  then 
into  the  throat,  and  swallow  it  in  one  piece.  If  it  is  too 
large,  and  'impossible  to  divide,  they  reject  it.  They  are 
rarely  seen  on  the  ground,  and  although  their  flight  is  heavy 
and  difficult,  they  perch  on  the  branches  of  the  highest 
trees,  where  they  remain  in  ceaseless  motion.  Their  call  is  a 
sort  of  whistle,  frequently  uttered.  Very  timid,  they  are  ap- 
proached with  difficulty.  During  the  breeding  season  they 
attack  the  weakest  birds  of  their  own  race,  chase  them  from 
their  nests,  and  devour  the  eggs  or  nearly-hatched  young  ones 


Fig.  190.  —  Toucan  (Ramphastos  toco, 

native  name). 


CUCKOOS. 


469 


which  they  enclose.  They  build  their  nests  in  holes  hollowed 
out  by  Woodpeckers  or  other  birds.  They  all  have  very  brilliant 
plumage,  and  inhabit  Para- 
guay, Brazil,  and  Guiana. 

This  family  is  divided  into 
Toucans,  properly  speaking, 
and  the  Aracaris.  These  are 
distinguished  from  the  former 
by  their  much  less  size,  more 
solid  beak,  and  longer  tail. 
The  most  beautiful  species  of 
the  family  is  the  Brazilian 
Toucan,  described  by  Hum- 
boldt  under  the  name  of  Yel- 
low Toucan  (Fig.  191).  The 
beautiful  orange  feathers 
which  cover  this  bird  are 
sometimes  employed  for  ladies'  dress.  This  fashion  has  passed 
from  Brazil  and  Peru  into  Europe,  and  muffs  made  of  the  throats 
of  Toucans  sell  at  a  great  price. 


Fi.T.  191.— Yellow  Toucan  (Pteroglossus  Hum- 
botdtii,  Gould). 


CUCKOOS. 

The  general  characteristic  of  the  birds  ranked  in  this  family 
are — slightly-curved  beaks  of  medium  dimensions,  wings  generally 
short  and  concave,  and  tapering  tails.  Among  the  Cuckoos  are 
comprehended  Anis,  or  Annos  (Cotophagus,  Briss.),  Barbets, 
Trogons,  and  Touracos,  or  Plantain-eaters.  Cuckoos  have  elegant 
shapes  ;  beaks  almost  as  long  as  the  head,  compressed,  and  slightly 
curved ;  the  tail  rather  long  and  rounded.  Unlike  other  birds 
of  the  same  family,  they  have  long  and  pointed  wings.  Their 
size  is  about  that  of  the  Turtle  Dove.  Their  flight  is  light  and 
rapid,  but  they  are  unable  to  bear  strong  winds ;  thus  they  cannot 
accomplish  great  journeys  without  resting.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  known  species  belonging  to  all  the  countries  of  the  Old 
Continent.  The  whole  of  Africa,  South  Asia,  China,  Japan,  and 
certain  isles  of  Oceania  are  inhabited  by  Cuckoos. 

Europe  only  possesses  one  species,  the  Grey  Cuckoo,  which  has 


470  SCANSOEES,  OE  CLIMBERS. 

been  carefully  studied,  and  to  which  what  we  have  to  say  regarding 
this  group  of  birds  applies.  Grey  Cuckoos  are  essentially  migratory. 
They  pass  the  warm  season  in  Europe,  and  the  winter  in  Africa 
or  in  the  warm  parts  of  Asia.  They  arrive  in  France  in  the 
month  of  April,  and  leave  it  at  the  end  of  August  or  the  begin- 
ning of  September.  They  travel  during  the  night,  not  in  numerous 
bands,  but  alone,  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three  at  the  most.  They 
prefer  bushy  parts  of  woods,  but  often  traverse  the  country  in 
search  of  nourishment,  which  is  composed  principally  of  insects 
and  caterpillars.  They  are  frightfully  voracious,  which  accounts 
for  the  enormous  capacity  of  their  stomachs.  Of  a  surly  and 
tyrannical  nature,  they  suffer  no  rival  of  their  species  in  the 
neighbourhood  which  they  have  chosen ;  for  if  some  intruder 
arrives,  it  is  hunted  out  without  truce  or  mercy.  On  account 
of  this  unsociable  disposition,  the  Grey  Cuckoos,  when  captured 
after  attaining  maturity,  are  unable  to  accommodate  themselves 
to  confinement — in  short,  adults  starve  themselves  to  death  when 
in  captivity.  Young  birds  are  less  restive,  and  gradually  accus- 
tom themselves  to  a  cage ;  but  they  are  always  disagreeable 
on  account  of  their  quarrelsome  habits,  which  prevents  them 
from  living  caged  with  feathered  companions. 

Cuckoos  are  celebrated  for  the  peculiar  manner  in  which 
they  raise  their  progeny.  The  females  do  not  build  a  nest  or 
cover  their  eggs,  neither  do  they  take  care  of  their  young.  They  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  generally  in  those  of  little  in- 
sectivorous Passerines,  such  as  the  Lark,  the  Robin,  Hedge  Sparrow, 
Eedthroat,  Nightingale,  Thrush,  Blackbird,  and  sometimes  also  in 
those  of  the  Magpie,  Turtle  Dove,  and  Wood  Pigeon.  They  leave 
the  care  of  hatching  their  eggs  to  these  strangers,  and  of  feeding 
their  young  until  they  are  completely  developed.  Different  expla- 
nations have  been  proposed  to  justify  the  anomaly  which  seems  to 
make  a  hard-hearted  mother  of  the  Cuckoo.  We  owe  to  M.  Florenf- 
Prevost  the  possession  of  certain  information  on  this  point  which 
had  long  remained  in  obscurity.  According  to  this  naturalist, 
Cuckoos  are  polygamous,  but  in  a  reverse  sense  to  other  birds. 
Whilst  among  them  males  have  several  females,  with  Cuckoos  it 
is  the  females  that  have  several  males,  because  the  stronger  sex  is 
much  more  numerous  than  the  weaker.  These  ladies  have  no 


CUCKOOS. 


171 


fixed  home.  At  the  "breeding- time  they  wander  from  one  district 
to  another,  reside  two  or  three  days  with  a  male  at  one  place, 
and  then  abandon  him,  according  to  inclination.  It  is  at  this  time 
that  the  males  so  frequently  utter  the  cry  known  to  all  the  world, 
and  from  which  the  bird  derives  its  name ;  it  is  a  sort  of  call  or 
challenge  to  the  females,  which  in  their  turn  reply  by  a  peculiar 
clucking.  Cuckoos  lay  eight  or  ten  eggs  in  the  space  of  a  few 
weeks.  When  an  egg  has  been  laid,  the  female  seizes  it  in  her  beak, 
and  carries  it  to  the  first  unoccupied  nest  in  the  vicinity,  and  there 
deposits  it,  profiting  by  the  absence  of  the  proprietor,  which  would 


Fig.  192. — Cuckoo  (Cuculus  canorus,  Linn.). 


certainly  oppose  such  an  addition.  A  Redthroat  has  been  seen  to 
return  unexpectedly,  and  force  the  stranger  to  retire  -with  her 
burden.  The  next  egg  is  placed  in  a  neighbouring  nest,  but  never 
in  the  same  as  the  first.  The  mother  is  doubtlessly  conscious  of 
the  unfortunate  position  it  would  place  her  two  nurslings  in  if  she 
acted  otherwise,  for  it  would  certainly  be  impossible  for  two 
little  Passerines  to  supply  the  wants  of  two  such  voracious  beings 
as  young  Cuckoos.  Pertinent  to  this,  we  will  mention  a  fact 
that  we  have  not  seen  stated  in  any  work  on  natural  history.  It 
often  happens  that  the  female  Cuckoo  takes  from  the  nest  one  of 
the  eggs  of  the  Passerine,  breaks  it  with  her  beak,  and  scatters  the 


472  SCANSOEES,  OE  CLIMBEE8. 

shell.  Thus,  when  the  mother  returns,  she  finds  the  same  number  of 
eggs  that  she  left.  It  is  from  this  cause  one  frequently  sees  pieces 
of  egg-shell  surrounding  the  nests  where  Cuckoos  have  deposited 
their  progeny.  This  action  on  the  part  of  the  birds  denotes 
perfect  reasoning  powers,  and  consequently  real  intelligence. 
What  say  the  great  philosophers  to  it,  who  refuse  this  faculty 
to  animals  ?  When  it  has  thus  left  its  eggs  to  nurse,  the 
female  comes  several  times  to  see  that  they  are  well  cared  for, 
and  does  not  leave  the  neighbourhood  till  she  is  assured  that  such 
is  the  case.  She  is  not  quite  so  free  from  solicitude  about  the 
welfare  of  her  young  as  one  at  first  thinks.  Thus  we  can  under- 
stand why  the  female  Cuckoo  does  not  herself  discharge  her 
maternal  functions.  Laying  her  eggs  at  considerable  intervals, 
she  would  find  that  to  cover  several  eggs  and  to  raise  a  young- 
one  at  the  same  time  was  incompatible,  for  the  latter  duty 
involves  frequent  absences  which  would  destroy  the  eggs,  to  which, 
during  incubation,  an  equal  and  constant  temperature  is  necessary. 
It  is  not  then  indifference,  but  thought,  that  causes  her  to  confide 
to  others  her  maternal  cares.  The  young  Cuckoo  is  no  sooner 
hatched  than  he  employs  his  infant  strength  to  get  rid  of  the  true 
children  of  his  foster-parents,  in  order  to  be  the  only  one  to  profit 
by  their  attentions ;  he  glides  under  the  frail  creatures,  gets  them  on 
his  back — where  he  holds  them  by  means  of  his  raised  wings — and 
precipitates  them  one  after  another  from  the  nest.  The  mother, 
though  thus  cruelly  treated  in  return  for  her  affection,  generally 
retains  her  love  for  this  perfidious  child  of  her  adoption,  and 
provides  for  all  its  wants  until  the  time  of  its  departure.  Some- 
times, however,  she  is  so  angry  at  the  loss  of  her  young,  that 
she  brings  no  nourishment  to  the  monster,  and  lets  it  die  of 
starvation. 

HONEY  GLIDES,  or  INDICATORS  (Indicator,  Yall.),  have  their  place 
next  to  Cuckoos.  These  are  little  birds  inhabiting  the  interior  of 
Africa.  They  feed  on  insects,  and  especially  delight  in  the  pupae  of 
bees ;  they  employ  very  curious  manoauvres  in  order  to  procure  them, 
which  denote  perfect  intelligence.  When  one  of  these  birds  dis- 
covers a  hive,  it  endeavours  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  first 
person  it  meets  by  frequently- repeated  cries.  When  observed  it 


ANIS.  473 

proceeds  to  fly,  and  sometimes  leads  thus  for  great  distances  till  it 
reaches  the  place  where  the  hive  is,  which  it  takes  care  to  point  out 
by  every  means  in  its  power.  Whilst  the  honey  is  being  taken,  the 
bird  remains  in  the  neighbourhood,  observing  all  that  passes,  and 
when  that  work  is  accomplished,  it  approaches  to  reap  the  fruits  of 
its  trouble,  The  bees  make  very  little  buzzing,  but  flutter  round, 
trying  to  sting  it  (but  its  skin  is  impervious  to  their  efforts). 
Often,  however,  the  despoiled  bees  attack  its  eyes,  and  sometimes 
succeed  in  blinding  it :  the  unfortunate  bird,  incapable  of  guiding 
itself,  then  perishes  in  sight  of  the  place  that  witnessed  its 
triumph.  The  Hottentots  esteem  Indicators  very  highly  on  account 
of  the  services  which  they  render  them  in  revealing  the  abodes  of 
bees,  and  therefore  scruple  to  kill  them. 

The  group  of  Cuckoos  is  supplemented  by  several  more  species 
nearly  allied  to  the  genus  Cuckoo,  upon  which  it  is  useless  for 
us  to  enlarge.  These  are  Courols,  Coccyzus,  Couas,  and  Guiras. 
All  these  birds  are  strangers. 

ANIS  have  bulky,  short,  very  compressed  beaks,  surmounted  by 
a  slight  and  sharp  crest.  They  inhabit  the  countries  of  Equatorial 
America,  and  live  in  troops  of  from  thirty  to  forty  in  the  midst  of 
savannahs  and  marshes.  They  feed  upon  reptiles  and  insects ;  they 
are  often  seen  to  alight  upon  cattle  to  devour  the  insect  parasites 
which  torment  them.  Hence  comes  their  scientific  name  of 
Crotophaga  (Linn.),  or  eaters  of  insects.  They  are  of  very  gentle, 
confiding  natures,  and  the  sight  of  man  does  not  frighten  them ; 
besides,  there  is  no  advantage  in  killing  them,  for  their  flesh 
exhales  a  repulsive  odour.  Taken  young,  they  become  very  familiar, 
and  are  as  quick  as  Parrots  in  learning  the  art  of  speaking.  They 
possess  the  instinct  of  sociability  in  the  highest  degree ;  so  much 
so,  that  they  do  not  even  isolate  themselves  at  pairing-times  as 
other  birds  do.  They  build  a  common  nest  either  in  the  trees  or 
bushes,  in  which  all  the  females  lay  and  sit  on  their  eggs. 
This  nest  is  sometimes  divided  by  walls  into  a  certain  number  of 
compartments,  each  of  which  belongs  to  a  female,  but  generally 
all  the  eggs  are  mixed,  and  the  females  cover  them  indiscrimi- 
nately. This  admirable  understanding  does  not  cease  after  the 
young  are  hatched.  These  are  nourished  by  all  the  mothers 


474 


SCANSOEES,  OE  CLIMBERS. 


in  common.  Are  not  these  little  republics  models  of  peace  and 
concord  ?  and  does  not  man  find  in  them  salutary  examples 
of  disinterestedness  and  affection  ?  The  two  principal  species  of 
the  genus  are  the  Razor-bill  of  Jamaica  and  the  Crow  Blackbird 
of  America.  The  former  is  the  size  of  a  Blackbird,  the  latter  of  a 
Jay. 

BARBETS  (Fig.  193)  owe  their  name  to  a  number  of  straight 
hairs  which  they  have  upon  their  beak.  They  are  massive  in  form, 
and  their  flight  is  heavy.  Inhabiting  warm  countries  of  both  con- 
tinents, they  conceal  themselves  in  thick  forests,  either  alone  or 
in  small  bands.  They  feed  on  fruits,  berries,  and  insects.  Certain 
species  even  attack  and  devour  young  birds.  They  build  in  the 


Fig.  193. — African  Barbet  (Pogonias  hirsutus,  Sw.)- 

trunks  of  trees.  The  number  of  eggs  they  lay  is  two,  sometimes 
(though  rarely)  three.  Levaillant  asserts  that  the  old  and 
infirm  Barbets  are  cared  for  and  fed  by  those  in  the  enjoyment 
of  all  their  vigour.  He  says  that,  having  taken  five  Barbets 
in  a  nest  of  Republicans,  one  of  which  was  so  old  that  it  could 
not  stand  on  its  legs,  and  having  enclosed  them  in  a  cage, 
"  the  four  healthy  Barbets  hastened  to  give  food  to  the  one  lying 
in  a  dying  state  in  a  corner  of  the  cage."  He  adds  that  the 
nest  whence  he  had  taken  them  was  filled  with  husks  and  the 
remains  of  insects,  which  led  him  to  think  that  the  old  invalid  had 


TEOGOXS. 


475 


been  fed  a  long  time  by 
these  kind  and  thought- 
ful birds.  If  this  is  true, 
it  is  worthy  the  atten- 
tion of  moralists. 

TROGONS,  like  Barbets, 
have  the  bases  of  their 
beaks  covered  with  hairs. 
Their  soft  and  silky 
plumage  glitters  with 
the  most  brilliant  hues, 
and  their  tails  are  ex- 
tremely long.  They  very 
strongly  resemble  the 
birds  of  night  by  their 
unsociable  nature  and 
melancholy  dispositions, 
and  by  the  solitary  lives 
they  pass  in  the  wildest 
parts  of  woods.  Like 
them,  also,  they  only  go 
out  in  the  morning  and 
evening  to  seek  the  in- 
sects and  caterpillars 
which  form  their  prin- 
cipal nourishment.  The 
presence  of  man  does 
not  frighten  them ;  and 
this  confidence  often  leads 
to  their  death,  for  they 
are  actively  pursued  for 
their  flesh,  which  is  said 
to  be  excellent,  and  also 
for  their  very  beautiful 
feathers.  Their  name 
Couroucous  arises  from 
the  cry  which  they  utter 
at  breeding-times.  They 
inhabit  the  intertropical 


Fig.  194  — Kesplendent  Trogons  (Trogon  (Calurux) 
rttylciidiuis,  Lrould). 


476 


SCANSOBES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 


regions  of  both  continents.  The  most  remarkable  species  is  the 
Resplendent  Trogon  (Fig.  194),  indigenous  to  Mexico  and  Brazil. 

The  plumage  of  this  bird  is 
of  a  magnificent  emerald 
green  frosted  with  gold : 
its  head  is  surmounted  by  a 
beautiful  tuft  of  the  same 
colour.  The  daughters  of 
the  Caciques  in  the  New 
World  formerly  used  its 
feathers  in  their  dresses.  At 
the  present  time  Creoles 
employ  them  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  most  com- 
mon species  is  the  Trogon 
mexicanus  (Fig.  195). 

Fig.  195.- Mexican  Trogon  (Trogon  mexicanus,  Gould).  TOURACOS,    Or     PLANTAIN- 

EATERS  (Musopkagida),   are 

African  birds,  of  which  the  general  forms  bear  some  analogy  to 
the  Hoccos.  They  live  in  forests,  and  perch  upon  the  highest 
branches  of  trees :  their  flight  is  heavy  and  little  sustained. 


WOODPECKERS. 

The  birds  which  compose  this  family  are  characterised  by  a 
rather  long,  conical,  pointed  beak,  and  by  a  very  extensible  tongue. 
They  form  two  genera,  Woodpeckers  and  Wry-necks. 

WOODPECKERS  excel  in  the  art  of  climbing,  but  they  do  not  per- 
form it  in  the  same  manner  as  Parrots.  They  accomplish  their 
ascensions  by  extending  their  toes,  supplied  with  bent  claws,  upon 
the  trunk  of  a  tree,  and  maintain  themselves  hanging  there  ;  then 
move  themselves  a  little  farther  by  a  sudden  and  jerked  skip,  and 
so  on.  These  movements  are  facilitated  by  the  disposition  of 
the  tail,  formed  of  straight  resistant  feathers,  slightly  worn  away 
at  their  extremities,  which,  pressed  against  a  tree,  serve  as  a 
support  to  the  bird.  Thanks  to  this  organisation,  Woodpeckers 
traverse  trees  in  every  direction — downwards,  upwards,  or  hori- 


WOOUPECKEES. 


477 


zontally.  Woodpeckers  are  of  a  timid  and  restless  disposition  ; 
they  live  alone  in  the  midst  or  on  the  borders  of  large  forests. 
Insects  and  their  larvae  form  their  nourishment ;  there  they  seek 
them  in  the  trunks  and  clefts  of  trees.  Their  tongue  is  wonder- 
fully suited  to  this  work  of  exploration.  It  is  very  long,  and, 
by  a  peculiar  mechanism,  can  be  projected  out  far  enough  to 


Fig.  196.— Black  Woodpeckers  (Picus  (Dryocopus]  martins,  Gould). 
1.  Female.  2.  Male. 

reach  objects  three  or  four  inches  away.  The  beak  is  termi- 
nated by  a  horny  point  bristling  with  small  hooks.  In  many 
species  it  is  overlaid  with  a  sticky  humour,  secreted  by  two 
voluminous  glands,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  catch  the  insects 
which  it  touches.  "Whenever  the  bird  darts  this  tongue  into 
the  crevices,  it  draws  it  out  more  or  less  laden  with  insects.  If  it 
perceives  an  insect  that  it  cannot  reach  by  means  of  this  organ,  it 


478 


SCANSOKES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 


has  recourse  to  its  strong  beak :  striking  the  tree  with  redoubled 
blows,  it  cuts  the  bark,  breaks  an  opening,  and  seizes  the  coveted 
prey.  It  often  also  strikes  with  its  beak  to  sound  the  tree,  and 
assure  itself  that  there  is  no  cavity  in  the  interior  which  would 
serve  as  a  refuge  for  its  prey.  If  the  trunk  is  hollow,  it  examines 
all  parts  to  find  the  entrance  to  the  cavity.  When  it  has  dis- 
covered it,  it  introduces  its  tongue ;  and  if  the  canal  is  not 
large  enough  to  permit  it  to  explore  the  hiding-place  with  suc- 
cess, it  increases  the  size  of  the  aperture.  It  is  not  only  to  seek 

for  food  that  Woodpeckers 
make  holes  in  trees,  but 
also  to  establish  their  nests. 
Some  species,  it  is  true, 
select  the  anfractuosities 
which  they  find,  but  others 
hollow  out  their  resting- 
places  according  to  their 
tastes.  When  such  is  the 
case,  they  inspect  soft-wood 
trees,  such  as  the  beech, 
aspen,  &c.,  to  ascertain  those 
that  are  decayed  in  the 
interior.  When  they  have 
made  their  choice,  the  male 
and  female  peck  the  bark  off 
the  tree  by  turns,  and  do  not- 
ecase to  labour  till  they  have 
reached  the  decayed  portion. 
The  cavity  which  they  bore 
is  generally  so  oblique  and 
so  deep  that  perfect  darkness  must  surround  them.  It  is  doubt- 
less a  measure  of  security  against  the  little  mammals,  especially 
the  rodents,  the  natural  enemies  of  their  family.  The  female 
deposits  her  eggs  upon  a  bed  of  moss  or  the  dust  of  worm- 
eaten  wood.  The  young  birds  grow  slowly,  and  receive  in  the 
nest  the  care  of  their  parents  for  a  long  time.  In  general  they 
have  little  voice,  or  only  utter  disagreeable  cries.  At  breeding- 
time  they  frequently  employ  a  language  peculiar  to  them- 


r>— Lesser  Spotted  Woodpeckers  (Picus 
minor i  Gould). 


WEY-NECKS. 


479 


selves  :  they  strike  the  trunks  of  dead  trees  with  their  beaks, 
and  these  blows,  which  are  heard  at  a  great  distance,  attract  all 
the  Woodpeckers  of  the  neighbourhood. 

Woodpeckers  are  generally  considered  noxious  birds,  because 
they  are  supposed  to  injure  the  trees  of  forests  and  orchards,  and 
for  this  reason  a  relentless  war  is  made  against  them.  They  should, 
on  the  contrary,  be  protected ;  for  they  destroy  innumerable  insects, 
the  real  enemies  of  timber.  Besides,  they  scarcely  ever  attack 
healthy  trees  —  they  reserve  their  labours  for  those  which  are 
worm-eaten.  There  are  a  great  number  of  species  of  Woodpeckers 
known,  wliich  are  spread  over  the  two  continents  :  Europe  possesses 
eight,  seven  of  which  live 
in  France  either  in  a  set- 
tled state  or  as  birds  of 
passage.  The  principal  are 
the  Black  Woodpecker, 
the  Spotted  Woodpecker, 
and  the  Grey  Woodpecker. 

WRY-NECKS    owe    their 
name  to  the  curious  pro- 


198.— Wry- necks  (Ftauc  torqtaUa 


perty  which  they  possess 
of  being  able  to  twist  their 
necks  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  turn  the  head  in  all 
directions.  They  repeat 
this  movement  every  in- 
stant, especially  when  sur- 
prised or  angry.  At  the 
same  time  their  eyes  be- 
come'fixed,  the  feathers  of  the  head  stand  up,  and  the  tail 
expands  itself.  Like  Woodpeckers,  they  can  hang  upon  trees, 
and  sustain  themselves  in  a  vertical  position  for  a  long  time  ; 
but  they  are  incapable  of  climbing.  The  weakness  of  their 
beaks  does  not  permit  of  their  boring  trees ;  therefore  they 
seek  their  nourishment  upon  the  ground,  principally  amongst 
the  ant-hills.  They  lead  a  solitary  existence,  which  they  only 
relinquish  at  pairing-time.  They  possess  a  characteristic  con- 
fidence, never  in  the  least  avoid  the  presence  of  man,  and 


480 


SCANSOEES,  OE  CLIMBEES. 


become  very  familiar  in  captivity.  They  build  in  the  natural 
holes  of  trees,  or  in  those  hollowed  by  Woodpeckers.  Their 
plumage  is  pleasing,  and  their  size  is  the  same  as  the  Lark. 
They  inhabit  all  the  Old  Continent. 


JACAMARS. 

Jacamars  (Fig.  199)  inhabit  Equatorial  America.  They  are 
characterised  by  long  and  pointed  beaks,  short  tarsi,  and  short 
or  obtuse  wings.  They  have  three  or  four  toes,  according  to  the 


'  Fig.  199. — Paradise  Jacamar  (Galbula  paradisea,  Latham). 

species.  Their  habits  are  little  known ;  but  it  is  certain  that 
they  live  isolated  or  in  pairs,  that  they  are  stupid,  move  but 
little^  and  rarely  depart  from  the  neighbourhood  where  they  have 
chosen  their  dwelling.  AH  species  do  not  frequent  the  same  places 
— some  like  thick  woods,  others  prefer  plains,  while  some  select 
damp  localities ;  but  all  are  insectivorous.  In  their  manners,  as 
well  as  in  their  physical  characteristics,  Jacamars  appear  to 
resemble  King-fishers,  of  which  we  shall  speak  in  the  following 
order. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
PASSEBINES. 

THE  Passerines  (from  passer,  the  Latin  name  for  Sparrow) 
form  the  least  natural  group  of  the  class  Aves.  Here  one  seeks 
in  vain  for  the  homogeneous  characteristics  which  distinguish 
the  preceding  races.  Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  detect  the  bonds 
which  connect  them  together.  For  example,  where  is  the  link 
which  unites  the  Crow  to  the  Swallow  or  to  the  Humming- 
birds ?  Nevertheless,  all  these  winged  creatures,  though  so 
different  externally,  belong  to  the  Passerine.  It  may  be  said 
that  this  order  presents  only  negative  characteristics,  bringing 
together  in  a  somewhat  odd  assemblage  all  birds  which  are 
neither  web-footed,  wading,  gallinaceous,  climbing,  nor  rapacious. 
The  only  physical  feature  on  which  much  stress  can  be  laid,  which 
is  common  to  all  Passerines,  and  even  that  not  of  much  value,  is 
that  the  outward  toe  is  united  to  the  middle  one  in  a  more  or  less 
extended  manner.  Their  food  consists  of  seeds,  insects,  and  fruit. 
They  live  singly  or  in  pairs ;  they  fly  gracefully  and  easily ;  their 
walk  consists  of  a  leap ;  and  they  build  their  nests  and  take  their 
rest  under  the  thick  foliage  of  trees,  or  under  the  eaves  of 
buildings. 

In  this  extensive  group  we  find  most  of  the  songsters  whose 
melodious  voices  so  charmingly  wake  the  echoes  of  the  wood- 
lands. Some  of  them  have  even  the  gift  of  imitating  to  a  certain 
extent  the  human  voice,  as  well  as  the  cries  of  wild  animals. 
Many  are  remarkable  for  their  brilliant  plumage ;  others  are 
appreciated  for  their  delicacy  on  the  table.  Man  has  reduced 
numbers  of  them  to  comparative  tameness,  but  has  altogether 
failed  in  bringing  them  to  a  domestic  state. 

Cuvier  divides  the  Passerine  into  five  great  families—  the.  Syn- 

1 1 


482  PASSEEINES. 

dactyles,  Tenuirostres,  Conirostres,  Fissirostres,  and  Dentirostres. 
The  first  is  based  on  the  structure  of  the  feet ;  the  other  four  on 
the  formation  of  the  bill.  But  this  classification  is  very  arbitrary, 
as  it  is  not  always  possible  to  assign  a  place  to  certain  groups  by 
an  inspection  of  the  beak  alone.  We  shall,  however,  follow  this 
distribution,  as  being  that  generally  adopted. 

SYNDACTYLES. 

The  Syndactyles  (having  the  toes  united)  have  the  external 
toe  nearly  as  long  as  the  middle  one,  and  united  to  it  up  to  the 
last  articulation.  The  birds  which  constitute  this  group  have 
little  analogy  with  each  other,  the  physical  characters  which  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  notice  being  purely  artificial  as  a  means  of 
classification.  The  family  includes  the  Hornbills  (Buceros,  Linn.), 
the  Fly-catchers  (Muscicapidce) ,  the  King-fishers  (Alcedo,  Linn.), 
the  Bee-eaters  (Merops,  Linn.),  and  the  Momots  (Prionites,  111.). 

The  HORNBILLS,  or  CALAOS,  are  remarkable  for  their  enormous 
development  of  beak,  which  is  long,  very  wide,  compressed, 
and  more  or  less  curved  and  notched,  and  in  some  species 
surmounted  by  a  large  helmet-like  protuberance.  This  immense 
beak  is  nevertheless  very  light,  being  cellulose,  as  in  the  Tou- 
cans. The  Hornbills  have  in  some  respects  the  bearing  of  the 
Crow :  this  led  Bontius  to  class  them  among  the  Crows,  under 
the  name  of  Indian  Crow  (Corvus  indicus).  They  walk  with 
difficulty,  and  their  flight  is  clumsy,  their  favourite  position  being 
on  a  perch  at  the  summit  of  lofty  trees.  Great  flocks  of  these 
haunt  the  forests  of  the  warmer  regions  of  the  Old  World, 
especially  Africa,  India,  and  the  Oceanic  Archipelago.  They 
build  their  nests  in  the  hollows  of  trees.  They  are  omnivorous, 
and  the  fruits,  seeds,  and  insects  of  those  regions  are  their  prin- 
cipal food;  yet  they  feed  also  on  flesh.  In  India  they  are 
domesticated,  their  services  in  destroying  rats  and  mice  being 
much  appreciated.  The  plumage  of  the  Hornbill  is  black  or 
grey,  of  various  shades ;  but  there  is  a  species  described  by  Dr. 
Latham  and  Dr.  Shaw,  under  the  name  of  the  Crimson  Hornbill, 
which  Mr.  Swainson  thinks  may  prove  to  be  a  link  between 
Toucans  and  Hornbills,  and  thus  combine  the  beauty  of  plumage 
of  the  former  with  the  peculiarity  of  form  of  the  latter.  Their 


FLY-CATCHERS. 


483 


flesh  is  delicate,  especially  when  fed  on  aromatic  seeds.  Many 
species  are  described,  varying  in  size,  among  which  the  Rhinoceros 
Hornbill  (Buceros  rhinoceros),  Fig.  200,  is  the  most  worthy  of 
notice.  This  bird  is  so  named  from  the  singular  protuberance 
with  which  its  bill  is  surmounted  :  this  is  a  smooth  horny  casque 
or  helmet,  curving  upwards  from  the  bill,  somewhat  resembling 
the  horn  of  the  rhinoceros.  It  is  a  native  of  India  and  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 


Fig.  200. — Rhinoceros  Hornbiil  (Buceros  rhinoceros,  tkmui). 

The  FLY-CATCHERS  (Muscicapidce)  are  a  family  of  insectivorous 
birds,  many  of  which  are  British,  comprehending,  according  to 
Temminck,  the  Todies  (Todus),  distinguished  by  long,  broad,  and 
very  flat  bills,  contracting  suddenly  at  the  tip.  Characteristics  : — 
Tail  short,  slender,  and  rounded  ;  legs  long  and  weak ;  toes  short, 
the  outer  one  more  or  less  united  to  the  middle  one.  T.  viridis, 
the  only  species,  according  to  Temminck,  has  a  bright  green 

n2 


484  PASSEEINES. 

plumage  above,  whitish  beneath  ;  a  scarlet  throat  ;  sides  rose 
colour  ;  and  the  tail-coverts  yellow.  It  is  a  native  of  South 
America  and  the  Antilles  ;  and  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  under  the  name 
of  "  Green  Humming-bird,"  describes  it  as  "  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  small  birds  he  ever  saw."  Mr.  Browne  states  that 
it  is  a  familiar  little  bird,  and  will  often  let  a  man  come  within 
a  few  feet  to  admire  it  before  becoming  alarmed.  "It  keeps 
much  about  the  houses  in  country  parts,"  he  adds,  "  flies  slow,  and 
probably  may  be  easily  tamed." 

It  lives  almost  entirely  on  the  ground,  feeding  on  insects,  which 
it  catches  in  the  evening.  It  builds  its  nest  in  the  crevices 
on  river  banks,  or  in  the  soft  rocks,  in  which  it  hollows  out  a 
dwelling  by  means  of  its  bill  and  feet. 

The  KING-FISHERS  (Alcedo),  the  Martin-fishers  of  some  authors, 
form  a  highly  interesting  group,  of  which  Alcedo  ispida  (Linn.) 
is  the  only  known  species  indigenous  to  Britain.  M.  Vigors 
finds  an  intimate  resemblance  between  them  and  the  Todies. 
The  King-fishers  are  very  singular  birds.  Their  bill  is  strong, 
straight,  and  angular,  being  of  immense  length  compared  with  their 
size ;  the  tip  of  both  mandibles  acute ;  the  commissure  perfectly 
straight;  the  head  strong  and  elongated;  wings  and  tail  of 
moderate  size;  tarsi  short,  and  placed  far  back  (Fig.  201).  The 
King-fisher  (A.  ispida)  has  behind  each  eye  a  patch  of  light 
orange  brown,  succeeded  by  a  white  one;  from  each  corner  of  the 
mandible  proceeds  a  line  of  rich  blue,  tinged  with  green ;  the  crown 
of  the  head  is  deep  olive  green ;  the  feathers  are  tipped  with  a 
verdigris  shade ;  chin  and  throat  with  yellowish  white ;  breast, 
belly,  and  vent  with  orange  brown ;  tail  a  bluish  green ;  shafts 
of  the  feathers  black ;  and  the  legs  a  pale  brick  red.  This  beautiful 
bird  is  as  interesting  in  manners  as  in  appearance.  Living  on 
the  banks  of  rivers,  they  feed  almost  exclusively  on  fish.  The 
King-fisher  watches  patiently  from  a  fixed  station,  generally  a 
naked  twig  overhanging  the  water,  or  a  stone  projecting  above 
the  surface,  for  its  prey :  in  this  position  it  will  sometimes 
wait  for  hours,  absolutely  immovable.  When  the  fish  comes 
within  reach,  with  great  rapidity  it  pounces  upon  it,  seizing  it 
in  its  powerful  mandibles,  and  after  destroying  it  by  com- 
pression, or  by  knocking  it  against  a  stone  or  the  trunk  of 


KING-FISHERS. 


485 


a  tree,  it  swallows  it  head  foremost.  When  fish  is  scarce  it 
feeds  also  upon  aquatic  insects,  which  it  seizes  on  the  wing. 
Its  aerial  movements  are  rapid  and  direct,  but  weakly  main- 
tained, being  performed  by  a  series  of  quick,  jerking  beats  of 
the  wings,  generally  close  to  the  surface  :  the  action  of  the 
wings  is  so  rapid  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible.  The  short  tarsi 
render  the  King-fisher  a  bad  walker. 

The  King-fisher  is  a  solitary  bird,  living  generally  in  secluded 


Fig.  201. — King-fishers  (Alcedo  ispida,  Linn.}. 


places,  and  is  rarely  seen  even  with  birds  of  its  own  species, 
except  in  the  pairing  season.  Like  the  Todies,  they  build  their 
nests  in  the  steep  banks  of  rivers,  either  in  the  natural  crevices, 
or  in  holes  hollowed  out  by  water  rats ;  and  these  dwelling- 
places  are  generally  disfigured  by  the  fragments  of  their  repast. 
Father  and  mother  sit  alternately,  and  when  the  young  are 
hatched  they  feed  them  with  the  produce  of  their  fishing.  The 
bird  has  a  shrill  and  piercing  note,  which  it  utters  on  the  wing. 
Their  flesh  is  very  disagreeable. 

The  King-fisher  is  the  Halcyon  of  the  ancients,  who  attributed 
to  it  after  death  the  power  of  indicating  the  winds.  The 
seven  days  before  and  the  seven  days  after  the  winter  solstice 
were  the  Halcyon  days,  during  which  the  bird  was  supposed  to 


486  PASSERINES. 

build  its  nest,  and  the  sea  remained  perfectly  cairn.  To  its  dead 
body  the  attributes  of  turning  aside  thunder-bolts,  of  giving  beauty, 
peace  and  plenty,  and  other  absurdities  were  ascribed.  Even  now, 
in  some  remote  provinces  of  France,  the  dead  birds  are  invested 
with  the  power  of  preserving  woollen  stuffs  from  the  attack  of  the 
moth;  hence  they  are  called  Moth  Birds  by  drapers  and  shop- 
keepers. They  are  inhabitants  of  almost  every  region  of  the 
globe,  and  comprehend  a  great  number  of  species,  spread  over 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America.*  Europe  possesses  one  species  not 
larger  than  a  Sparrow,  and  which  is  remarkable  for  the  rich 
colouring  of  its  feathers.  What,  indeed,  can  surpass  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  King-fisher  as  it  suddenly  darts  along  some  mur- 
muring brook,  tracing  a  thread  of  azure  and  emerald  ?  Some 
authors  separate  the  King-fishers,  properly  so  called,  or  river- 
side birds,  from  the  Bee-eaters  and  other  Fissirostral  birds,  which, 
while  they  resemble  each  other  in  many  physical  characteristics, 
differ  essentially  in  their  habits  ;  in  short,  while  the  one  haunts 
the  river,  feeds  upon  its  inhabitants,  and  nests  upon  its  margin, 
the  other  keeps  to  the  woods  and  forests,  feeds  upon  insects,  and 
builds  in  holes  in  trees. 

The  Ceyx  Meninting  of  Lesson  (Alcedo  Biru  of  Horsfield)  very 
closely  resembles  the  King-fisher  of  Europe  in  its  habits  ;  it  darts 
in  short,  rapid  flight  along  the  surface  of  lakes  and  rivulets,  emit- 
ting shrill,  discordant  sounds  ;  it  perches  on  trees  on  the  river 
banks,  and  feeds  on  small  fishes  and  aquatic  insects.  The  tarsus  is 
smooth,  the  inner  toe  suppressed  ;  in  other  respects  its  habits 
are  those  of  the  King- fisher. 

The  BEE-EATERS  (Meropidce)  have  the  beak  long,  thin,  slightly 
curved,  and  pointed,  the  mandible  having  a  trenchant  edge ;  the 
tarsi  short ;  the  wings  long  and  pointed ;  the  tail  well  developed, 
tapering,  or  forked.  They  are  slender,  light,  and  clamorous ; 
their  cries  are  incessant,  while  they  skim  through  the  air  on 
rapid  wing  with  well- sustained  flight.  Their  name  of  Bee-eaters 
they  take  from  their  principal  food,  which  consists  of  various 
Hymenoptera,  especially  bees  and  wasps.  They  seize  their  prey 
either  on  the  wing,  like  the  Swallows,  or  they  hide  themselves  at 

*  In  China  a  great  number  of  species  are  to  be  found,  all   robed  in  the  most 
lliant  plumage,  nine  of  which  we  have  collected. — ED. 


BEE-EATERS. 


487 


the  opening  of  their  hives,  and  snatch  up  all  that  enter  or  depart. 
They  are  skilful  in  avoiding  their  sting.  Living  together  in 
numerous  flocks,  they  rapidly  clear  a  district  of  wasps  and  wild 
bees. 

They  build  their  nests  in  the  banks  of  rivers  or  rivulets,  in 
holes  which  they  excavate  to  the  depth  of  six  or  seven  feet. 
Some  species  are  highly  esteemed  as  table  delicacies  by  the 
French. 

The  Bee-eaters  inhabit  the  warmer  regions  of  the  Old  World, 
such  as  Bengal,  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Morocco,  and  Malta.  One  species  alone  is  found  in  Europe,  the 


Fig.  2U2. — Common  Bee-eater  (Alerojjs  apiaster^  S\v.). 

Common  Bee-eater  (Merops  apiaster),  Fig.  202.  From  the  coast 
of  Africa  it  migrates  in  small  flocks  into  the  countries  skirting  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Some  individuals  proceed 
into  France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany ;  others  spread  themselves 
over  Turkey  and  the  southern  parts  of  Russia.  In  England  it  is 
occasionally  met  with  in  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  and  along  the 
Hampshire  coast.  It  has  been  shot  in  the  Mull  of  Galloway.  In 
France  it  arrives  in  the  month  of  May,  and  remains  but  a  short 
time.  As  a  rule  it  rarely  ventures  further  north  than  the  South 
of  France. 

The  MOMOTS  (Priorities,  Illiger)  are  birds  still  very  imperfectly 


488 


PASSEEINES. 


known.  They  are  remarkably  massive  in  form,  heavy  and  slow 
on  the  wing.  They  are  placed  by  systematists  near  the  Toucans 
(Ramphastos),  from  similarity  of  habits,  and  especially  from  the 
structure  of  the  tongue,  which  is  in  both  long,  and  so  much 
ciliated  at  the  sides  as  to  resemble  a  feather.  The  feet,  however, 
are  totally  different  from  those  of  the  Toucans.  In  the  Momots 
the  beak  is  long,  robust,  and  crenated  at  the  edge.  They  are 
very  wild,  and  lead  an  isolated  life  in  the  thick  forests  of  South 
America,  where  they  build  in  holes  in  trees. 


Fig.  203.— Momot  (Prionites,  Sw.). 

TENUIROSTRES. 

The  Passerine  Tenuirostres  are  characterised  by  a  long  slender 
beak,  straight  or  curved,  but  always  without  indentation.  They 
are  insectivorous,  and  comprise  the  Hoopoes,  Humming-birds, 
Creepers,  and  Nuthatches. 

The  HOOPOES  (Upupa,  Linn.)  have  the  beak  long,  slender,  tri- 
angular, and  slightly  curved.  This  group,  which  Mr.  Gray 
designates  the  Upupidce,  includes  a  number  of  birds  whose  general 
form  presents  the  greatest  analogy,  but  which  possess  their  own 
peculiarities  of  plumage  and  special  physiognomy.  This  has 
necessitated  its  subdivision  into  sub- genera,  of  which  the  Hoopoes 
(Upupa),  the  Promerops  (Brisson),  and  the  Epimachus  are  worthy 
of  notice. 


HOOPOES. 


489 


The  Hoopoes  are  easily  recognised  from  the  double  range  of 
plumes  which  form  an  arched  crest  on  their  head,  which  they 
have  the  power  of  raising  at  pleasure.  These  feathers  are,  in 
the  Common  Hoopoe,  of  a  ruddy  buff  colour,  tipped  with  black. 
They  are  solitary  birds,  living  by  preference  in  low  grounds 
and  humid  places,  where  they  prey  on  the  worms,  insects,  and 
terrestrial  mollusks.  They  are  migratory,  and  are  occasionally 


Fig.  204. — Hoopoes  ( Upupa  epops.  Linn.). 

found  in  the  British  Islands  in  autumn :  instances  have  occurred 
of  their  breeding  there.  They  take  their  departure  for  warmer 
regions  in  September.  They  have  a  light  and  graceful  walk,  and 
nearly  pass  their  existence  on  the  ground,  rarely  perching,  and 
flying  with  visible  effort.  They  have  no  song,  and  only  utter 
two  notes,  which  may  be  rendered  by  the  syllables  zi,  zi ;  houp, 


490 


PASSEEINES. 


Jioup.  They  nest  in  the  clefts  of  rocks  or  walls,  and  in  holes 
in  the  trunks  of  trees.  When  captured  young,  they  become  very 
tame,  and  seem  to  be  susceptible  of  great  attachment  to  those 
who  take  care  of  them. 

The  Hoopoe  (Fig.  204)  is  found  in  summer  as  far  north  as 
Denmark  and  Sweden ;  and  southward,  in  France  and  Italy, 
at  Gibraltar  and  Ceuta,  and  in  Egypt,  where  it  breeds,  as  it 
probably  does  over  Northern  Africa.  It  has  been  seen  occa- 
sionally at  Madeira,  and  is  abundant  at  Trebisond,  whence  it 
comes  every  year  to  pass  the  summer  season  in  Europe.  During 
the  spring  and  summer  it  abounds  all  over  France.  At  the  period 
of  its  departure — that  is  to  say,  in  the  month  of  September — it 
is  plump  enough  to  be  a  choice  morsel  for  the  table,  as  its  flesh 
is  very  delicate. 

The   EPJMACHUS    are   remarkably  beautiful  birds.      When  at 

maturity  the  side-feathers  de- 
velop themselves  in  delicate 
lines  or  elegant  panicles,  while 
their  plumage,  richly  coloured, 
is  brilliant  with  diaphanous  me- 
tallic reflections.  Little  is  known 
of  their  habits.  They  are  na- 
tives of  Australia  and  New 
Guinea.  The  very  remarkable 
species,  E.  multifil  (Fig.  205), 
has  six  long  fillets  on  each  side 
of  its  body.  The  equally  strik- 
ing species,  E.  magnus,  has  the 
elongated  side- feathers  raised 
and  curling,  of  a  glittering 
steel  blue,  azure,  and  emerald 
green ;  the  breast  and  belly 

lustrous  with  the  same  diaphanous  tints.  This  bird  is  an  inhabitant 
of  New  Guinea. 

The  PROMEROPS  are  distinguished  from  the  other  Upupina  by 
the  absence  of  the  crest,  by  their  very  long  tail,  and  by  their 
forked  and  extensible  tongue.  They  are  natives  of  Africa,  and 
their  habits,  like  those  of  the  former,  are  little  known. 


Fig.  205. — Epimaclms  (Epimachus  multifil). 


HUMMING-BIRDS.  491 

The  Colibri  of  Cuvier  may  be  divided  into  Humming-birds 
(Trochilida),  or  species  having  the  beak  straight,  and  true  Colibri, 
having  the  beak  curved.  "With  this  slight  difference,  the  Trockillda 
and  Colibri  closely  resemble  each  other.  They  have  the  same 
slight,  elegant  figure,  the  same  brilliancy  of  plumage,  and  the 
same  habits — describe  the  one,  and  you  describe  the  other.  We 
must  be  permitted,  therefore,  to  treat  of  them  together. 

The  HUMMING-BIRDS  (Trochilidte)  are  the  most  lovely  of  the 
winged  race.  Nature  seems  to  have  endowed  them  with  her  rarest 
gifts.  In  creating  them  she  surpassed  herself,  and  exhausted  all 
the  charms  at  her  disposal ;  for  she  imbued  them  with  grace, 
elegance,  rapidity  of  motion,  magnificence  of  plumage,  and  indo- 
mitable courage.  What  can  be  more  delightful  than  the  sight 
of  these  little  feathered  beauties,  flashing  with  the  united  fires 
of  the  ruby,  the  topaz,  the  sapphire,  and  the  emerald,  flying 
from  flower  to  flower  amid  the  richest  tropical  vegetation  ?  Such 
are  the  lightness  and  rapidity  of  some  of  the  smaller  species,  that 
the  eye  can  scarcely  follow  the  quick  beat  of  the  wings.  When 
they  hover  they  seem  perfectly  motionless,  and  one  might  fancy 
they  were  suspended  by  some  invisible  thread. 

Specially  adapted  for  an  aerial  life,  they  are  unceasingly  in 
motion,  searching  for  their  food  in  the  calyx  of  flowers,  from 
which  they  drink  the  nectar  with  so  much  delicacy  and  address 
that  the  plant  is  scarcely  stirred.  But  the  juice  and  honey  of 
flowers,  as  some  authors  affirm,  are  not  their  only  food — such  un- 
substantial diet  would  be  insufficient  to  sustain  the  prodigious 
activity  displayed  almost  every  moment  of  their  existence. 

The  tongue  of  the  Humming-bird  is  a  microscopic  instrument 
of  marvellous  arrangement.  It  is  composed  of  two  half-tubes 
placed  one  against  the  other,  capable  of  opening  and  shutting  like 
a  pair  of  pliers.  Moreover,  it  is  constantly  moistened  by  a  glu- 
tinous saliva,  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  seize  and  hold  insects 
—an  arrangement  not  without  its  analogy  in  the  Woodpeckers. 

Proud  of  their  gay  colours,  the  Humming-birds  take  the  greatest 
care  to  protect  their  plumage.  They  frequently  dress  themselves 
by  passing  their  feathers  through  their  bills.  Their  vivacity 
often  amounts  to  petulance,  and  they  frequently  manifest  belli- 
gerent propensities  not  to  be  expected  in  such  minute  creatures. 


492 


PASSEEINES. 


They  attack  birds  much,  larger  than  themselves,  harassing  and 
pursuing  them  without  intermission,  threatening  their  eyes,  and 
always  succeeding  in  putting  them  to  flight.  They  frequently 
contend  with  each  other.  If  two  males  meet  on  the  calyx  of  a 
flower,  bristling  with  anger,  and  uttering  their  cry,  they  rush  on 


Fig.  206.— Nest  of  Humming-bird. 

one  another.      After  the  conflict  is  over  the  conqueror  returns  to 
reap  the  reward  of  his  valour. 

The  nest  of  the  Humming-bird  (Fig.  206)  is  a  masterpiece. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  half  an  apricot.  The  materials  are  brought 
by  the  male,  and  arranged  by  the  female.  These  consist  of 
lichens,  and  are  most  artistically  interwoven,  the  crevices  being- 
closed  up  with  the  bird's  saliva  :  the  interior  is  padded  with  the 
silky  fibres  furnished  by  various  plants.  This  pretty  cradle  is 


HUMMING-BIRDS.  493 

suspended  to  a  leaf,  sometimes  to  a  small  branch,  bundle  of  rushes, 
or  even  to  the  straw  roof  of  a  hut.  The  hen  bird  lays  twice  a  year 
a  pair  of  eggs  of  a  pure  white,  about  the  size  of  a  pea. 

After  an  incubation  of  six  days  the  young  are  hatched ;  a  week 
later  they  are  capable  of  flight.  During  the  breeding  season  the 
males  are  tender  and  demonstrative,  and  both  parents  show  much 
affection  for  their  progeny. 

These  little  creatures  are  universally  admired  for  their  elegance 
and  beauty,  and  the  names  given  them  are  generally  descriptive 
of  their  excessive  minuteness.  The  Creoles  of  the  Antilles  call 
them  Murmurers ;  the  Spaniards  Pica/lores ;  the  Brazilians  Chu- 
paflores,  or  Flower- suckers ;  finally,  the  Indians  call  these  darlings 
Sunbeams. 

Humming-birds  are  much  sought  after — not  for  their  flesh, 
which  is  valueless  from  its  minute  quantity,  but  for  their  feathers  : 
these  ladies  turn  to  various  uses,  such  as  collars,  pendants  for 
the  ears,  &c.  Some  of  the  Indian  races  which  have  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity  employ  them  to  decorate  the  images  of 
their  favourite  saints.  The  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  formerly 
employed  them  for  trimming  mantles.  The  French  soldiers  who 
shared  in  the  Mexican  expedition  report  that  pictures  with  the 
feathers  of  the  Humming-bird  are  fresh,  brilliant,  and  effective. 

Humming-birds  cannot  be  preserved  in  captivity — not  that 
they  do  not  become  familiar  and  affectionate,  but  their  extreme 
delicacy  unfits  them  for  confinement,  and  in  spite  of  the 
utmost  care  that  can  be  bestowed  on  them,  they  will  die  in  a 
few  months.  In  their  habitat  they  are  killed  with  very  small 
shot  or  with  the  sarbacane :  if  desired  alive,  they  are  taken  with 
a  butterfly  net. 

Among  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  Trochilida  may  be 
reckoned  the  Monster  Spider  (My gale  amcularia),  which  spins  its 
web  round  their  nests,  and  devours  eggs  or  little  ones ;  even  the 
old  birds  are  sometimes  its  victims.  Humming-birds  are  scattered 
over  the  whole  of  South  and  North  America,  even  as  far  north  as 
Canada  ;  but  in  Brazil  and  Guiana  they  are  most  abundant.  At 
least  five  hundred  species  are  known.  Cuvier  included  them  in  his 
genus  Colibri.  Mr.  Gould  has  described  three  hundred  of  which 
he  has  actual  specimens ;  these  he  divides  into  fifty-two  genera. 


494 


PASSERINES. 


Among  the  more  remarkable  species  we  may  note  the  Topaz- 
throated  Trochilus  ( T.  pella,  Grould),  a  native  of  Brazil ;  the  Sickle- 
winged  Humming-bird  ( Trochilus  falcatus,  Sw.)  ;  Grould's  Hum- 
ming-bird (Ornismya  Gouldii,  Less.)  ;  the  Double-crested  Hum- 
ming-bird (Trochilus  cornutus,  Wied.)  ;  Cora  Humming-bird 
(Ornismya  cora,  Less.) ;  the  Giant  Humming-bird,  which  attains 
the  size  of  the  Swallow ;  the  Dwarf  Humming-bird,  whose  size 


Fig.  207. — Bar-tailed  Humming-bird  (Trochilus  spurganurus,  Lesson;. 

does  not  exceed  that  of  a  bee  ;  the  Bar-tailed  Humming  or 
Sapho  Bird  of  Lesson  (Fig.  207),  a  native  of  Eastern  Peru ;  and  the 
Racket-tailed  Humming-bird,  so  named  from  the  shape  of  its 
tail,  which  spreads  out  at  the  extremity  in  the  form  of  a  racket. 

The  CLIMBERS  (Scansores,Vig.)  among  birds,  such  as  the  Wood- 
peckers, are  characterised  by  an  arched  beak  and  a  stiff  pointed 


CREEPEKS. 


495 


tail.  The  family  comprehends  several  genera  and  sub-genera,  of 
which  the  principal  are  the  Climbers,  properly  so  called,  as  the 
Creepers  (Certhia},  the  Wall- Creepers  (Tickodrom a),  the  Picum- 
nus,  the  Furnarius,  the  Sucriers,  the  Soui-mangas,  and  the  Nut- 
hatches (Sitta). 

The  CREEPERS  (Certhia)  are  small  Climbing  birds  which  live 
and  build  their  nests  in  the  holes  they  bore  in  the  trunk  or  in 
the  natural  hollows  of  trees  :  the  insects  to  be  found  under  the 
bark  are  their  food.  Looking  at  the  form  of  their  slender  beak,  it 


Fig.  208. — The  Creeper  (Certliiajamiliaris,  Linn.). 


is  difficult  to  imagine  how  it  can  penetrate  the  hard  covering 
of  an  oak,  for  which  they  exhibit  a  marked  preference.  The  Tree- 
Creeper  ( Certhia  familiaris)  is  spread  over  nearly  every  European 
country,  and  is  very  common  in  France.  The  Wall-Creeper 
(Tic.hodroma  mumria,  C.  Bonap.),  called  also  Wall-Climber  (the 
Grimpereau  des  Mur allies  of  French  authors),  owes  its  name  to 
its  habit  of  climbing  the  walls  of  dwellings.  Supporting-points 
are  not  found  in  their  tails,  as  in  the  Woodpeckers.  Grasping 
the  tree  with  their  claws,  they  assist  their  feet  by  a  slight  move- 
ment of  the  wings.  They  feed  on  insects,  and  lead  a  solitary 
life  on  the  mountains,  only  descending  into  the  plains  with  the 


496 


PASSEEINES. 


early  frosts  of  winter.  They  are  found  diffused  over  all  the  South 
of  Europe. 

The  PICUMNUS  (Climacteris  picumnus,  Temm.)  have  form  and 
habits  very  similar  to  the  Creeper,  but  the  beak  is  stronger  and 
more  boldly  curved.  They  are  natives  of  Brazil  and  Guiana. 

The  FURNARIUS  (Furnarius  fgulus,  Spix.)  live  singly  or  in 
pairs  in  the  plains  of  Chili,  Brazil,  and  Guiana.  They  feed  princi- 
pally on  seeds,  but  also  on  insects.  They  take  up  their  residence 
with  much  confidence  in  the  neighbourhood  of  man.  Their  nests 
(Fig.  209)  are  remarkable  for  their  construction,  being  in  the  form 


Fig.  209.— Furnarius  (Furnarius,  Lesson). 

of  an  oven,  whence  their  name.  This  structure  it  builds  upon 
trees,  on  palisades,  or  on  the  window  of  a  house.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  size  as  compared  with  its  inhabitant,  measuring  not  less 
than  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  in  diameter;  it  is  entirely 
formed  of  clay,  and  the  interior  is  divided  by  a  partition  into  two 
compartments,  the  outer  and  inner,  the  latter  being  that  in  which 
the  female  lays  her  eggs.  The  male  and  female  alternately  bring 
small  balls  of  earth,  out  of  which  the  edifice  is  constructed,  and 
they  labour  so  industriously  that  it  is  sometimes  finished  in  two 
days.  Some  species  construct  their  nests  on  trees,  interlacing 
them  with  spiny  branches,  and  providing  one  or  many  openings ; 


STICKLERS. 


497 


that  of  the  Annumbi  is   fifteen   inches   in   diameter   by  twenty 
inches  in  height. 

The  SUCRTERS  ( CinnyridcB]  are  American  birds,  so  called  from 
their  attachment  to  saccharine  substances.  They  feed  on  honey 
they  extract  from  flowers,  and  the  sap  from  the  sugar-cane,  the 
juice  of  which  they  suck  through  crevices  in  the  stem.  Like 
the  Humming-birds,  they  have  the  tongue  divided  into  two 
parts,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  seize  insects,  which  form  a 


Fig.  210.— Sun-birds  (Certhia  c/ialybeia,  Linn.). 

part  of  their  food.  They  are  small  in  size,  and  their  plumage  is 
brilliantly  coloured.  Among  the  Cinnyridae  we  find  the  Guits-guits, 
ingenious  little  creatures  which  construct  a  nest  in  the  form  of  a 
horn,  which  is  suspended  from  the  flexible  branches  of  a  shrub  : 
in  order  to  protect  their  young  from  the  attacks  of  earwigs,  the 
opening  is  below. 

The    SOUI-MANGAS   (Fig.    210)    have   the   same   partiality   for 

KK 


498 


PASSERINES. 


sugar  exhibited  by  the  last,  justifying  their  name,  which  signi- 
fies "  sugar-eater  "  in  the  Malagash  tongue.  They  are  natives  of 
Southern  Africa  and  India,  and  represent  in  the  Old  World 
the  Humming-birds  of  the  New.  They  are  gay  and  sprightly, 

and  decked  in  the  most 
brilliant  colours.  Like  the 
other  Cinnyridce,  they  love 
to  plunge  their  tongue  into 
the  corolla  of  flowers  and 
extract  its  sweets.  Their 
most  brilliant  colours  are  dis- 
played in  the  breeding  season. 
The  NUTHATCHES  (Sitta), 
Fig.  211,  have  the  beak 
straight,  pyramidal,  and 
pointed,  covered  at  the  base 
with  small  feathers  directed 
forward ;  the  long  toes  are 
furnished  with  claws  strong 
and  crooked ;  their  habitat  resembles  that  of  the  Creepers.  The 
Nuthatch  is  found  in  Oceania. 


Fig.  211.— Common  Nuthatch  (Sitta  europcea,  Gould). 


CONIROSTRES. 

The  Conirostral  Passerince  are  characterised  by  a  strong,  robust 
beak,  more  or  less  conical,  and  without  notches.  They  are 
generally  granivorous,  but  some  species  are  insectivorous  or  car- 
nivorous. This  group  includes  the  Birds  of  Paradise,  Crows, 
Rollers,  Starlings,  Sparrows,  Tits,  and  Larks. 

The  BIRDS  or  PARADISE  have  the  beak  straight,  compressed,  and 
strong,  the  nostrils  covered  with  velvety  feathers.  In  brilliancy  of 
colouring-,  and  in  graceful,  pendent,  gossamer-like  plumage,  they 
take  precedence  in  the  feathered  creation. 

They  have  a  very  restricted  habitat,  being  only  found  in  New 
Guinea,  Ternate,  and  in  the  island  of  Papua,  situated  to  the  north 
of  Australia :  there  they  dwell  in  the  thick  forests,  feeding  on 
fruit  and  insects.  Occasionally  they  are  found  living  in  solitude, 


BIEDS  OF  PAKADISE. 


499 


but  more  frequently  are  to  be  met  in  large  flocks,  altering  their 
residence  with  the  change  of  the  monsoon. 

Their  flight  is  very  swift,  and  has  been  frequently  compared  by 
Europeans  resident  in  the  East  to  that  of  a  Swallow  ;  in  con- 
sequence, they  have  bestowed  on  the  Bird  of  Paradise  the  name 
of  Swallow  of  Ternate. 

It  is  owing  to  the  long  lateral  plumes,  which  they  most  perfectly 


Fig.  212.— The  Great  Emerald  (Paradisea  apoda,  Linn.). 

control  in  the  air,  that  they  are  so  buoyant ;  at  the  same  time,,  this 
unusual  amount  of  plumage  almost  entirely  stops  their  progres- 
sion against  a  head  wind. 

When  the  Bird  of  Paradise  was  first  spoken  of  in  Europe  few 
believed  that  it  existed.  Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  when 
we  remember  that  it  was  affirmed  that  these  gorgeous  birds  were 
without  legs,  and  hung  on  to  the  branches  of  trees  by  their 
long  aerial  plumes  ;  that  the  female  deposited  her  eggs  under  the 

KK2 


500 


PASSERINES. 


feathers  on  the  back  of  the  male  ;  that  they  passed  the  breeding 
season  in  Paradise  ;  and  many  other  stories  equally  absurd. 

The  inhabitants  of  Papua  capture  these  birds,  for  their  plumage 
is  of  great  commercial  value.  The  method  they  adopt  is  to  place 
themselves  in  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees  :  when  thus  concealed, 
they  attract  the  birds  within  reach  of  their  blow-pipes  by  whistling. 
The  Birds  of  Paradise  are  divided  by  Yieillot  into  Parotia, 
Lophorina,  Cincinnurus,  and  Samalia.  The  most  remarkable 
among  these  is  Paradisea  apoda,  the  Great  Emerald,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called  (Fig.  212),  the  throat  and  neck  of  which 
are  of  a  bright  emerald  green,  from  which  circumstance  it  has 

received  one  of  its  popular 
names,  while  on  its  sides  are 
shaded  tufts  of  yellow  fea- 
thers which  float  on  the  breeze, 
forming  an  elegant  aerial 
plume,  and  giving  the  bird 
a  meteor  look  as  it  shoots 
through  the  air.  They  live 
in  flocks  in  the  vast  Papuan 
forests.  When  prepared  for 
migration — for  they  change 
their  quarters  with  the  mon- 
soons— the  females  assemble 
in  small  flocks  on  the  tops  of 
the  loftiest  trees,  and  utter 
their  call  to  the  males,  each 
flock  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  being  attended  by  one  male. 

The  King  Bird  of  Paradise  (Paradisea  regia,  Linn.),  Fig.  213, 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  where  it  is  scarce.  Little 
is  known  of  its  habits.  The  beak,  which  is  furnished  at  the 
base  with  small  feathers  pointing  forward,  is  slender,  convex,  and 
slightly  compressed  at  the  sides.  The  hypochoiidrial  feathers  are 
broad,  elongated,  and  truncated. 

In  the  Superb  (Lophorina  superba),  Fig.  214,  the  beak  is  fur- 
nished with  elongated  feathers,  extending  half  its  length;  the 
feathers  of  the  neck,  rising  just  behind  the  head,  expand  into  a 
wing- like  form. 


Fig.  213.— King  Bird  of  Paradise  (Cincinnurus 
regius,  Vieillot). 


SIFILETS. 


501 


In   the   Sifilets    (Parotid)   the   beak   is    furnished   with   short 
feathers  for  half  its  length,  and  is  slender,  compressed  laterally, 


Fig.  214.— The  Superb  (Paradisea  sitperba,  Latham). 


notched  and  curved  at  the  tip  ;  they  have  long,  broad,  and  loose 
plumes  covering  the  sides  and  abdominal  part.  Of  this  group 
the  Gold-throated  Sifilet  of  Buffon  (Parotid  sexsetacca,  Latham), 


Fig.  215. — Golden-throated  Sifilet  (Paradisea  aurea,  Gmelin). 

Fig.  215,  is  a  fine  example.     It  obtains  its  name  from  the  three 
thread-like  feathers  on  each  side  of  the  head  expanding  into  u 


502  PASSERINES. 

lancet  shape  at  the  extremity,  and  which  form  a  very  striking 
ornament. 

The  birds  which  constitute  the  CROWS  (Corvidce)  are  charac- 
terised by  a  very  strong  beak  with  cutting  edges,  broad  at  the 
base,  flattened  laterally,  and  hooked  towards  the  point ;  the  nostrils 
covered  with  stiff  feathers  directed  forward  ;  also  by  strong 
claws  and  long  pointed  wings.  They  are  divided  into  four  groups 
or  sub-genera — namely,  Corvus,  the  Crows  properly  so  called ; 
the  Magpies  (Pica) ;  the  Jays  (Garrulus) ;  and  the  Nut-cracker 
(Nucifraga). 

The  genus  Corvus,  as  limited  by  modern  naturalists,  compre- 
hends the  Raven  (C.  cor  ax,  Lesson),  the  Carrion  Crow  (C.  cor  one  y 
Temm.),  the  Royston  Crow  (C.  comix,  Selby),  the  Rook  (C.frugi- 
legus,  Linn.),  the  Jackdaw  (C.  monedula,  Linn.). 

All  these  species  have  in  many  respects  the  same  characteristics, 
the  same  aptitude,  and  the  same  habits.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Raven  and  Magpie,  which  live  in  pairs,  the  others  reside 
together  in  large  flocks,  whether  they  are  in  quest  of  their  daily 
food  or  roosting  at  night.  They  are  all  possessed  of  the  same 
intelligence,  the  same  cunning,  the  same  mischievous  habits,  the 
same  gift  of  imitation,  though  in  different  degrees,  and  the  same 
provident  habit  of  amassing  provisions  in  secret  places.  This 
last  peculiarity  in  tamed  birds  degenerates  into  a  mania,  which 
leads  them  to  carry  off  and  hide  everything  that  attracts  their 
attention,  especially  gems  and  bright  articles  of  metal.  The 
whole  group  are  susceptible  of  domestication. 

The  Crows,  especially  the  Raven  and  the  Carrion  Crow,  are 
pre-eminently  omnivorous.  Living  or  dead  flesh,  fish  cast  up  on 
the  shore,  insects,  eggs,  fruit,  seeds — nothing  comes  amiss  to  them. 
Their  depredations  are  enormous.  Thus  Ravens,  not  content 
with  raising  a  tribute  on  moles,  wood-mice,  and  leverets,  venture 
into  poultry-yards,  and  without  ceremony  appropriate  chickens, 
ducklings,  &c.  Buffbn  even  asserts  that  in  certain  countries 
they  fasten  upon  the  backs  of  buffaloes,  and  after  having  put 
out  their  eyes,  devour  them.  As  for  the  Carrion  Crows,  accord- 
ing to  Lewis,  it  is  certain  that  they  attack  the  flocks  in  Scotch 
and  Irish  pastures.  Lastly,  all  Crows  delight  in  digging  up 
newly-sown  ground,  eating  with  avidity  the  germinating  seed. 


CEOWS.  503 

On  this  account  the  agricultural  population  are  generally  their 
bitterest  enemies,  destroying  them,  when  opportunity  offers. 
In  certain  parts — Norway,  for  instance — laws  were  made  order- 
ing their  extermination.  But  this  policy  was  short-sighted : 
if  they  did  harm,  they  also  did  good,  for  the  quantity  of 
noxious  grubs  and  larvae  formerly  devoured  by  them,  and  con- 
sequently kept  in  check,  became  most  formidable  foes  to  the 
farmer,  and  most  difficult  to  overcome.  How  is  it  that  men 
will  not  use  their  brains — that  they  actually  destroy  the  animals 
provided  by  a  bounteous  Creator,  and  whose  utility  is  most  con- 
spicuous ? 

The  flesh  of  the  Raven  and  the  Carrion  Crow  exhales  a  very 
bad  odour,  doubtlessly  caused  by  the  quantities  of  putrid  animal 
matter  they  consume;  consequently,  it  is  unfit  for  human  food. 
Not  so,  however,  with  the  Rook.  This  bird,  when  taken  young, 
is  not  only  eatable,  but  by  some  deemed  a  delicacy. 

Crows  possess  a  vigorous  and  sustained  flight ;  they  have  a  keen 
sense  of  smell,  and  excellent  vision.  By  exercising  these  latter 
qualities  they  become  aware  where  food  is  to  be  obtained,  and  as 
they  wing  their  way  towards  it  they  constantly  utter  their  cry, 
as  if  inviting  their  companions  to  join  them :  this  croak,  as  it  is 
called,  is  very  harsh  and  dissonant.  The  plumage  being  of  a 
sombre  funereal  black,  and  the  voice  so  unmusical,  have  doubtless 
been  the  reasons  why  they  have  long  been  considered  birds  of 
ill  omen.  When  taken  young,  they  are  tamed  with  great  facility, 
even  to  permitting  them  to  go  at  large,  for  they  will  neither 
rejoin  their  own  race  nor  desert  the  neighbourhood  where  they 
have  been  kindly  treated.  True,  they  may  go  into  the  fields  to  seek 
for  food,  but  when  the  increasing  shadows  predict  the  approach 
of  night,  their  familiar  resting-place  in  the  house  of  their  protector 
will  be  sought.  They  become  much  attached  to  those  who  take 
notice  of  them,  and  will  recognise  them  even  in  a  crowd.  Their 
audacity  and  their  malice  are  incredible.  When  they  take  an 
antipathy  to  any  one,  they  immediately  show  it.  They  suffer 
neither  cats  nor  dogs  to  approach  them,  but  harass  them  inces- 
santly, tearing  from  them  their  very  food.  Filially,  they  choose 
secret  hiding-places,  where  they  store  up  all  that  tempts  their 
cupidity  or  excites  their  covetousness.  They  even  learn  to  repeat 


504  PASSEEINES. 

words  and  phrases,  and  to  imitate  the  cries  of  other  animals.  These 
facts  are  confirmed  by  numerous  anecdotes  related  by  naturalists 
of  undoubted  veracity. 

Pliny  speaks  of  a  Raven  which  established  itself  in  one  of  the 
public  places  of  Rome,  and  called  out  the  name  of  each  passer-by, 
from  the  emperor  to  the  humblest  citizen.  We  have  all  laughed 
heartily  at  the  recital  of  an  adventure  which  happened  to  an 
awkward  horseman  who  lost  his  seat,  while  a  Raven  perched 
on  u  branch  of  a  tree  above  him  cried  out  with  solemn  voice, 
"How  silly!" 

Dr.  Franklin  thus  speaks  of  a  Raven  of  his  acquaintance  which 
had  been  brought  up  at  a  country  inn: — "It  had,"  he  says, 
•"  great  recollection  of  persons,  and  knew  perfectly  all  the  coach- 
men, with  whom  it  lived  on  the  greatest  intimacy.  With  its 
special  friends  it  took  certain  innocent  liberties,  such  as  mounting 
on  the  top  of  their  carriage  and  riding  out  with  them  until  it  met 
some  other  driver  with  which  it  was  on  terms  of  similarly  close 
friendship,  when  it  would  return  home."  The  same  Raven  had 
unusual  sympathy  with  dogs  in  general,  and  especially  those 
which  happened  to  be  ]ame.  These  it  loaded  with  the  most 
delicate  attentions,  keeping  them  company  and  carrying  them 
bones  to  gnaw.  This  excessive  kindness  to  animals  which  are 
rarely  in  the  good  graces  of  Ravens  arose  from  this  bird  having 
been  reared  along  with  a  dog,  for  which  it  entertained  such  strong 
regard,  that  it  attended  it  with  unremitting  assiduity  when  it 
had  the  misfortune  to  break  its  leg. 

The  same  author  mentions  another  Raven  which  was  captured 
in  Russia,  and  came  to  be  confined  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  of 
Paris.  It  recognised  Dr.  Monin  when  he  stopped  accidentally 
before  its  cage.  It  had  belonged  to  him  ten  years  before,  and 
when  brought  before  its  old  master  it  leaped  upon  his  shoulder 
.  and  covered  him  with  caresses.  The  doctor  reclaimed  his  property, 
and  the  bird  was  henceforth  an  ornament  to  his  house  near  Blois, 
where  it  learnt  to  address  the  country -people  as  "  great  hogs." 
Dr.  Franklin  raised  one  of  these  birds  himself  which  showed 
wonderful  powers  of  imitation.  "  He  called  himself  Jacob.  Some- 
times it  made  such  a  noise  at  the  bottom  of  the  stairs  that  you 
could  only  imagine  it  was  caused  by  a  party  of  three  or  four 


EAVENS.  505 

children  quarrelling  with  great  violence ;  at  other  times  it  would 
imitate  the  crowing  of  a  cock,  the  mewing  of  a  cat,  the  barking 
of  a  dog,  or  the  sound  produced  by  a  rattle  for  frightening  away 
birds  from  a  wheat-field  ;  then  a  silence  would  ensue ;  but  soon 
after  the  crying  of  a  child  of  two  years  of  age  would  be  mimicked  ; 
*  Jacob !  Jacob !  '  its  own  name,  probably  it  would  then  call, 
repeating  the  cry  at  first  in  a  grave  tone,  then  with  shriller  intona- 
tion and  more  vociferously ;  again  another  silence ;  but  after  a 
pause,  a  man  seems  to  knock  at  the  gate ;  if  it  is  opened,  enter 
Jacob,  who  runs  about  the  room,  and  finally  mounts  on  the  table. 
Unfortunately,  Jacob  was  a  thief— and  that  was  not  his  least 
fault ;  spoons,  knives,  forks,  even  plates,  disappeared,  with  meat, 
bread,  salt,  pieces  of  money — especially  if  new ;  he  carried  off 
everything,  and  hid  all  in  some  secret  hole  or  corner.  A 
washerwoman  of  the  neighbourhood  was  accustomed  to  dry  her 
linen  near  our  window,  fixing  the  clothes  on  the  line  with 
pins  ;  the  bird  would  labour  with  a  perseverance  truly  wonderful 
to  detach  these,  the  woman  chasing  him  off  with  bitter  male- 
dictions about  her  fallen  linen ;  but  he  would  only  fly  over  into 
his  own  garden  for  safety,  where  he  would  indulge  in  a  few 
malicious  croakings.  One  day  I  discovered,  under  some  old 
timber,  Jacob's  hiding-place.  It  was  full  of  needles,  pins,  and  all 
manner  of  glittering  objects." 

Mr.  Charles  Dickens  was  partial  to  keeping  Ravens  in  his  youth, 
and  has  related  some  of  his  experiences  in  the  preface  to  "  Barnaby 
Rtidge."  He  had  two  great  originals.  "The  first  was  in  the  bloom 
of  his  youth,  when  he  was  discovered  in  a  humble  retreat  in  London 
and  given  to  me.  He  h.-'d  from  the  first,  as  Sir  Hugh  Evans  says 
of  Anne  Page,  '  good  gifts/  which  he  improved  by  study  and  atten- 
tion in  a  most  extraordinary  manner.  He  slept  in  a  stable — 
generally  on  horseback — and  so  terrified  a  Newfoundland  dog  by 
his  preternatural  sagacity  that  he  has  been  known,  by  the  mere 
superiority  of  his  genius,  to  walk  off  unmolested  with  the  dog's 
dinner  from  before  his  face.  He  was  increasing  in  intelligence 
and  precocity  when,  in  an  evil  hour,  his  stable  was  newly  painted. 
He  observed  the  workmen  closely,  saw  that  they  were  careful  of 
their  pigments,  and  immediately  burned  to  possess  some  of  them. 
On  their  going  to  dinner,  he  ate  up  all  they  left  behind,  consisting 


506  PASSEEINES. 

of  a  pound  or  two  of  white-lead.    Alas  !  this  youthful  indiscretion 
terminated  in  death. 

"  Whilst  yet  inconsolable  for  the  loss,  another  friend  of  mine," 
adds  Mr.  Charles  Dickens,  "  discovered  an  older  and  more  gifted 
Raven  at  a  village  inn,  which  he  prevailed  upon  the  landlord  to  part 
with  for  a  consideration.  The  first  act  of  this  sage  was  to  administer 
to  the  effects  of  his  predecessor,  by  disinterring  all  the  cheese  and 
halfpence  he  had  buried  in  the  garden — a  work  of  immense  labour 
and  research,  to  which  he  devoted  all  the  energies  of  his  mind. 
When  he  had  achieved  this  task,  he  applied  himself  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  stable  language,  in  which  he  soon  became  such  an  adept  that 
he  would  perch  outside  any  window  and  drive  imaginary  horses  all 
day  long,  with  great  skill  in  language.  Perhaps  I  never  saw  him 
at  his  best,  for  his  former  master  sent  his  duty  with  him,  and 
said,  '  if  I  wished  the  bird  to  come  out  very  strong,  to  be  so  good 
as  show  him  a  drunken  man  ; '  which  I  never  did,  having  (unfortu- 
nately) none  but  sober  people  at  hand.  But  I  could  hardly  have 
respected  him  more,  whatever  the  stimulating  influence  of  this 
sight  might  have  been.  He  had  not  the  least  respect  for  me,  I 
am  sorry  to  say,  in  return,  or  for  anybody  but  the  cook,  to  whom  he 
was  attached — but,  I  fear,  only  as  a  policeman  might  have  been. 
Once  I  met  him  unexpectedly,  about  half  a  mile  off,  walking  down 
the  middle  of  the  public  street,  attended  by  a  pretty  large  crowd, 
and  spontaneously  exhibiting  the  whole  of  his  accomplishments. 
His  gravity  under  this  trying  ordeal  I  never  can  forget,  nor  the 
extraordinary  gallantry  with  which,  refusing  to  be  brought  home, 
he  defended  himself  behind  a  pump  until  overpowered  by  numbers. 
It  may  have  been  that  he  was  too  bright  a  genius  to  live  long,  or 
it  may  have  been  that  he  took  something  pernicious  into  his  bill, 
and  thence  into  his  maw — which  is  not  improbable,  seeing  he  new- 
pointed  the  greater  part  of  the  garden- wall  by  digging  out  the 
mortar,  broke  countless  squares  of  glass  by  scraping  away  the 
putty  all  round  the  frames,  and  tore  up  and  swallowed  in  splinters 
the  greater  part  of  a  wooden  staircase  of  six  steps  as  well  as  the 
landing — but  after  some  three  years  he  was  taken  ill,  and  died 
before  the  kitchen  fire.  He  kept  his  eye  to  the  last  upon  the 
meat  as  it  roasted,  and  suddenly  turned  over  on  his  back  with  the 
sepulchral  cry  of  '  Cuckoo.'  " 


MAGPIES. 


507 


Crows  ( Corrifs)  are  universally  diffused  over  the  globe.  The 
Raven  (Corvus  corax],  Fig.  216,  and  the  Carrion  Crow  (Corvus 
corone),  are  sedentary  "birds,  and  never  voluntarily  abandon 
the  place  they  have  elected  for  their  home.  The  Hooded  Crow 
(Corvus  corone),  the  Rook  (Corvus  frugilegus),  and  the  Jackdaw 
(Corvus  monedula),  are  migratory  in  their  habits,  only  visiting- 


Fig.  216. — The  Raven  (Corvus  corax,  Lesson). 

the  countries  of  Southern  Europe  on  the  approach  of  winter. 
The  Royston  Crow  (Corvus  comix)  inhabits  the  lofty  mountain 
regions  of  Europe,  descending  into  the  plains  during  winter. 
Finally,  the  Senegal  Crow  (C.  senegalensis,  Temm.)  is  exclu- 
sively confined  to  Africa. 

The  MAGPIES  are  distinguished  from  the  Crows  by  their 
shorter  wings,  longer  tail,  and  by  their  variegated  plumage  ; 
but  for  this  difference,  they  greatly  resemble  the  previously 
described  in  appearance  and  habits.  Like  the  Crows,  they  are 
omnivorous,  but  they  generally  avoid  dead  prey ;  they  have  the 
same  desire,  whether  in  the  wild  or  domestic  state,  to  store  away 
provisions  and  hide  glittering  objects.  Their  instinctive  habit  of 
appropriating  all  sorts  of  plunder  is  one  of  the  causes  of  their 
popularity.  Every  one  has  heard  the  true  story  on  which  the 
drama  of  The  Maid  and  the  Magpie  is  founded — how  Ninette 
was  accused  and  pronounced  guilty  of  robbing  her  master,  and 


50S  PASSERINES. 

when  executed  found  to  have  been  innocent,  the  true  culprit  being 
the  pet  Magpie  of  the  house. 

The  Magpie  is  a  bold,  impudent  bird,  which  is  easily  put  to 
flight  by  man,  but  will  fearlessly  harass  a  dog,  a  fox,  or  any  of  the 
smaller  birds  of  prey.  Having  caused  one  of  these  to  retreat, 
it  pursues  it  vigorously,  rousing  by  its  cries  all  the  birds  of  its 
kind ;  and  what  with  its  own  energy  and  the  combined  efforts 
of  its  kindred,  it  generally  succeeds  in  utterly  discomfiting  the 
intruder.  Its  action  is  unceasing,  its  movement  short  and  jerky  ; 
but  it  is  heavy  on  the  wing.  It  cries  and  chatters  incessantly. 
Hence  the  proverb  to  "chatter  like  a  Magpie."  It  builds  its  nest 
of  withered  shrubs,  dry  sticks,  and  sand,  on  the  highest  branch 
of  some  lofty  tree,  it  is  and  equally  remarkable  for  its  form, 
size,  and  solidity.  This  fabric  has  many  beginnings :  the 
foundation  of  the  last'  and  permanent  structure  is  laid  with 
infinite  precautions,  to  avert  observation.  This  care  is  taken, 
according  to  M.  Nordmann,  in  order  to  mislead  those  who  are 
spies  on  its  actions;  for  it  is  in  this  last  nest  that  the  female 
deposits  her  eggs.  If  this  fact  were  clearly  established,  it  would 
show  a  great  amount  of  cunning  in  the  bird. 

The  Magpie  lays  seven  eggs,  which  the  parent  birds  hatch  with 
care,  each  bird  sitting  alternately.  They  show  great  attachment 
to  their  progeny,  and  continue  to  exercise  their  protection  and 
solicitude  until  the  young  are  well  advanced  towards  maturity. 

The  Magpie  is  tamed  with  facility,  and  soon  becomes  familiar, 
assiduously  following  its  master  everywhere,  and  eagerly  seeking 
his  caresses,  so  that  it  is  necessary  sometimes  to  shut  it  up  to  get 
rid  of  its  importunities.  It  readily  learns  to  repeat  a  few  words, 
"mag"  being  the  favourite  in  its  vocabulary.  The  ability  to 
pronounce  Words  is  said  to  be  increased  by  extending  the  soft 
fibrous  slit  which  binds  the  lower  part  of  the  tongue  to  the  palate. 
But,  compared  with  the  beautiful  glossy  bird  of  the  thicket,  the 
domesticated  Magpie,  draggled  and  mutilated,  is  a  miserable- 
looking  object. 

The  Common  Magpie  (Pica  melanoleuca) ,  Fig.  217,  abounds  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  Cultivated  valleys  with  natural  or  artificial 
woodlands  on  their  slopes  ;  low  ground  diversified  with  fields  ; 
pastures  and  moors  partially  covered  with  plantations;  fertile 


JAYS. 


309 


plains  fenced  in  with  wooded  hedgerows,  and  studded  with  farm- 
houses and  cottages,  are  the  type  of  landscape  they  prefer.  In 
spring  plumage  the  Magpie  is  a  fine  bird,  the  feathers  of  the 
back  being  of  velvety  black,  while  the  breast  and  a  part  of  the 
wings  are  pure  white. 

In  the  Brazils  and  Paraguay  we  find  another  species,  whose 
whole  plumage  is  a  fine  cerulean  blue,  with  the  exception  of  the 


Fig.  217. — Common  Magpie  (Corvus  pica,  Linn.). 

head  and  throat,  which  are  black.  In  China  there  is  also  a  Mag- 
pie of  beautiful  cobalt-blue  plumage  ;  its  two  centre  tail  feathers 
are  very  long,  barred  with  black,  and  tipped  with  pure  white ;  the 
bill  and  legs  are  red.  It  is  extremely  shy,  and  occasionally  seen 
in  flocks.  By  the  inhabitants  it  is  frequently  taught  to  speak. 

The  JAYS  (Cormis  glandarius)  have  short  bills,  which  are 
slightly  notched  at  the  tip ;  head  rather  large  ;  feathers  on  the 
upper  and  anterior  part  of  the  head  erectile  when  the  bird  is  irri- 
tated ;  those  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible  are  stiff, 
with  short  barbs.  It  is  not  less  shy  than  other  members  of  the 
family,  although  it  frequents  gardens,  where  it  feeds  on  beans 
and  peas,  of  which  it  seems  to  be  particularly  fond.  Its  food, 
however,  is  not  confined  to  fruit  and  vegetables,  as  it  picks  up 
worms,  insects,  the  eggs  of  small  birds,  and  Crustacea,  after  the 
manner  of  Crows  and  Magpies.  Naturally  irascible  and  quar- 


510 


PASSERINES. 


relsome,  they  are  nevertheless  easily  tamed  when  taken  young, 
and  soon  learn  to  pronounce  a  few  words.  They  abound  in 
Europe  and  the  Indies.  The  European  Jay  (  Garrulus  glandarius), 


Fig.  218.-European  Jay  (Garrulus  glandarius,  Belon). 

Fig.  218,  is  a  pretty  bird  of  soft  and  blended  plumage,  the 
feathers  of  the  fore  part  of  the  head  elongated,  oblong,  and 
erectile  :  its  general  colour  is  a  delicate  brownish  red  tinged  with 


Fig.  219.— Tlie  Nut-cracker  Crow  (Nucifraga,  Briss.). 

grey,  approaching  to  purple  on  the  back.  The  most  conspicuous 
trait  of  the  plumage  is  the  patch  of  ultramarine  blue,  banded  with 
blackish  blue,  on  the  primary  coverts. 


HOLLERS.  511 

The  American  variety  of  Jay  is  not  quite  as  large  as  the 
European  representative.  Its  plumage  is  less  brilliant.  In 
characteristics  they  are  much  alike,  being  equally  mischievous  and 
dreaded  by  the  smaller  feathered  denizens  at  the  period  of  nesting. 

The  NUT-CRACKER  (Nucifraga  caryocatactes)  is  furnished  with  a 
long,  strong,  and  straight  bill,  with  which  it  can  penetrate  under 
the  bark  of  trees  when  in  search  of  insects,  and  open  -the  cones  of 
firs  and  pines,  on  the  kernels  of  which  it  feeds  ;  failing  these,  it  eats 
the  hazel-nut  and  wild  fruit,  from  which  circumstance  its  name  is 
derived.  They  inhabit  the  mountain  forests  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
building  their  nests  in  the  trunks  of  trees,  to  which  they  are 
capable  of  clinging,  but  not  of  climbing. 

The  EOLLERS  (Coradas  garrula),  Fig.  220,  have  in  their  general 


Fig.  220.— European  Eoller  (Galgulus,  Briss.). 

appearance  and  habits  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Jays  ;  but 
they  differ  from  the  beak  being  more  robust,  and  the  nostrils 
uncovered ;  they  are  also  more  timid,  withdrawing  into  the 
thickest  parts  of  the  woods,  which  are  their  favourite  haunts.  When 
taken  young  from  the  nest  it  is  tameable.  Dr.  Meyer,  of  Offen- 
bach, and  others,  have  succeeded  in  rearing  them  ;  but  although 
they  become  so  tame  as  to  know  those  who  attend  to  their  wants, 
they  never  grow  familiar.  Their  favourite  food  consists  of 


512 


PASSEEINES. 


insects  and  their  larvae,  worms,  and  the  smaller  reptiles ;  but  in 
their  absence  they  feed  on  berries,  seeds,  and  certain  roots. 

The  bill  of  the  Roller  is  black  towards  the  point,  becoming 
brown  at  the  base,  with  a  few  bristles ;  the  irides  are  formed  of 
yellow  and  brown  circles  ;  the  head,  neck,  breast,  and  belly  present 
various  shades  of  bluish  verditer,  changing  to  a  palish  green  ;  the 
plumage  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  a  brilliant  azure  blue 
on  the  shoulders,  and  reddish  brown  on  the  back ;  rump  feathers 
purplish.  Wing  primaries  dark  bluish  black,  lighter  on  the 
edge  ;  tail  feathers  pale  greenish  blue.  They  abound  in  Europe, 
Africa,  and  Southern  Asia.  Although  the  natural  habitat  of 
the  bird  is  oak  and  beech  forests,  M.  Yieillot  tells  us  that  in 
Malta,  where  trees  are  scarce,  the  bird  nests  on  the  ground.  In 
Barbary  it  has  been  observed  to  build  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers, 
and  Pennant  observes  that  where  trees  are  wanting  it  builds  its 
nest  in  clayey  banks. 

The  STARLINGS  (Stiemida)  are  characterised  by  a  straight  bill, 


Fig.  221. — Starling  (Sturnus  vulgaris,  Swainson). 


depressed  towards  the  point.  They  are  remarkable  for  their 
vivacity,  and  grave,  sombre  plumage,  lit  up  with  brilliant  metallic 
reflections  of  green  and  blue.  They  are  sociable  birds,  living 
in  numerous  flocks,  being,  says  Selby,  "particularly  abundant 
in  the  fenny  parts  of  Leicestershire  and  Nottinghamshire,  where 


STARLINGS. 


513 


they  roost  among  the  reeds.  Before  retiring  to  rest  they  perform 
numerous  manoeuvres  in  the  air,  the  whole  colony  frequently 
describing  rapid  counter-flights  round  a  common  centre.  They 
will  sometimes  continue  repeating  the  eccentric  evolutions  for  half 
an  hour  before  they  finally  settle  for  the  night."  Their  favourite 
food  is  seeds  and  berries,  and  occasionally  insects,  worms,  and  small 
terrestrial  mollusks.  They  choose  for  their  nests  well-protected 
places,  such  as  the  hollows  of  decaying  trees,  crevices  of  walls, 
the  belfries  of  old  churches,  the  ledges  of  roofs,  and  sometimes  even 
the  interior  of  pigeon-houses.  The  nest  is  formed  of  dry  grass, 
in  which  it  lays  five  light  blue  eggs.  The  Starling  is  accused  of 
seeking  the  shelter  of  the  dovecot  for  the  purpose  of  sucking  the 
inhabitants'  eggs,  but  this  is  now  found  to  be  a  calumnious 
error."  They  are  diffused  over  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  There 
are  two  species  described  among  European  birds — Sturnus  vulgaris 


.  222.—  The  Pensile  or  Baltimore  Oriole  (  Icterus  baltimvrus,  Wood). 


(the  Common  Starling),  and  Sturnus  unicolor  (the  Sardinian  Star- 
ling), which  is  black,  and  without  spots,  with  the  anterior  feathers 
very  long,  tapering,  and  drooping  from  the  base  of  the  neck.  It 
is  found  in  Algeria  among  the  rocks,  where  it  builds.  It  passes 
the  winter  on  the  African  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  company 
with  the  Common  Starling.  Its  flesh  is  bitter,  and  consequently 
unpleasant  to  the  taste,  but  it  is  sought  after  for  its  docility,  and 
for  the  ease  with  which  it  is  taught  to  speak. 

L  L 


514 


PASSERINES. 


The  BALTIMORE  ORIOLES  (Xanthornis  baltimwii,  Sw.)  have  the 
bill  broad  at  the  base,  nearly  conical  and  pointed  ;  the  upper 
mandible  has  the  dorsal  line  slightly  arched,  the  ridge  narrow, 
the  sides  flat  and  sloping  at  the  base.  They  are  chiefly  American 
birds,  and  have  considerable  resemblance  in  form  and  habit  to  the 
European  Starlings.  Like  them,  they  are  sprightly,  light,  and 
very  rapid  on  the  wing,  live  together  in  large  flocks  throughout 
the  year,  feeding  on  seeds,  berries,  and  especially  insects,  and  fre- 
quently committing  ravages  on  cultivated  fields  and  orchards. 
Some  of  this  genera  exhibit  remarkable  industry  and  skill  in 


Fig.  223.— The  Beef-eater  (Huphaga  africana,  Levaill.). 

the  construction  of  their  nests  :  the  most  ingenious  represents 
a  kind  of  purse,  about  a  yard  in  length  and  a  foot  in  diameter, 
the  mouth  or  entrance  being  placed  sometimes  at  the  upper 
extremity,  sometimes  on  the  side.  Naturalists  have  subdivided 
them  into  many  smaller  groups  or  genera,  the  most  important 
being  the  one  here  described,  and  which  may  well  be  taken  as 
an  example.  They  are  confined  entirely  to  North  America. 

The  BEEF-EATERS  (Buphagus,  Briss.),  Fig.  223,  owe  their  name 
to  a  singular  habit  they  have  of  lighting  on  the  backs  of  rumi- 
nating mammalia,  and  picking  off  the  insects  or  extracting  the 
larvse  of  QEstri  which  infest  them — an  operation  which  cattle 
submit  to  with  great  pleasure.  Their  food  is  not  confined  to  the 


CKOSSBILLS. 


515 


larvae  of  the  (Estri ;  they  feed  also  upon  the  wood-bug  and  locusts  : 
hence  they  are  likewise  called  Locust  Hunters.  They  generally 
unite  in  small  flocks  of  six  or  eight.  They  are  very  wild,  and 
take  flight  with  a  sharp  cry  of  alarm  on  any  one  approaching 
their  haunts. 

Among  the  congeners  of  the  Beef-eater  may  be  placed  the 
COLIUS  (Briss.  and  Linn.),  which,  like  that  bird,  is  an  inhabitant 
of  Africa.  They  are  small,  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
Yellow-hammer,  and  have  a  tuft  on  the  head.  They  live  in 
flocks  of  from  twelve  to  twenty,  which  nest  in  common,  and 
feed  on  fruit  and  young  birds.  According  to  Levaillant,  they 
creep  on  the  branches  of  trees,  with  the  head  downwards ;  and, 
strange  to  say,  even  sleep  in  this  peculiar  position,  pressing  one 
against  the  other.  Their  flesh  is  said  to  be  very  delicate. 


Fig.  224.— Crossbills  (Loxia  curvirostra,  Linn.). 

The  CROSSBILLS  (Loxiada)  are  remarkable  for  the  form  of  their 
bill,  the  mandibles  being  compressed  and  recurved,  crossing 
each  other  in  contrary  directions,  the  terminations  being  hooked, 
forming  an  instrument  admirably  adapted  for  dividing  the  scales  of 
fir-cones  so  as  to  disclose  the  germs,  which  are  favourite  portions 
of  their  food.  They  are  sometimes  found  near  orchards,  feeding 

L  L  2 


516 


PASSEEINES. 


on  the  kernels  of  apples,  which  their  bill  readily  cuts.  They  are 
said  to  commit  great  ravages  on  the  fruits  of  Normandy  when 
they  pass  through  that  province,  which  they  annually  do  in  great 
flocks.  This  family  present  this  peculiarity,  which  is  almost 
unique  among  birds — that  they  build  their  nests  and  lay  at  all 
seasons.  The  Crossbills  haunt  the  wooded  mountains  of  the  North 
of  Europe  and  America. 

The  SPARROW  (Passer)  is,  perhaps,  the  best-characterised  genus 
among  the   Passerine   Conirostres.     In   it  are  included  a  great 

number  of  species  with  bills 
more  or  less  thick  at  the  base. 
Coming  to  the  most  remark- 
able of  them,  we  have  the 
Grosbeak  (Fringilla  cocco- 
thramtes,  Temm.),  Fig.  225, 
which  is  the  type  of  the  genus, 
for  it  is  distinguished  by 
the  possession  of  a  bill  which 
is  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  long,  not  less  than  half 
an  inch  in  thickness  at  the 
base,  and  of  immense  strength 
when  the  size  of  the  bird  is 
considered,  which  scarcely  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  Thrush.  It 
feeds  on  seeds,  berries,  and 
insects  ;  the  kernels  of  the 
hardest  fruit  cannot  resist  the 
powerful  implement  with 
which  it  is  provided.  Widely 
diffused  throughout  Europe, 
it  is  always"  met  with  in  England  during  autumn,  continuing 
with  us  till  April,  but  it  has  not  been  recorded  as  breeding  here. 
It  is  constantly  found  in  France,  where  it  appears  in  open  country 
or  woods,  according  to  temperature.  It  is  a  quarrelsome  and 
unsociable  bird  ;  and  if  placed  in  confinement  with  others,  it  will 
undoubtedly  maltreat,  and  perhaps  kill  them. 

The  Americans  possess  many  species  of  Fringilla,  some  of  them 
having  plumage  of  a  fine  rose  colour. 


Fig.  225.— Grosbeak,  or  Hawfinch  (Loxia 
coccothraustes.  Linn.). 


THE  SISKIN. 


517 


] 

r 


Fig.  226.— Bullfinches  (Loxia  pyrrhula,  Penn.). 


The  BULLFINCHES  (PyrrJiida  vulgaris,  Gould),  Fig.  226,  are 
pretty  little  birds.  Their 
cheeks,  breast,  and  belly 
are  a  bright  crimson, 
shaded  with  orange  red ; 
grey  round  the  shoulders, 
with  black  head.  They 
feed  on  various  kinds  of 
seeds  or  berries.  They 
are  easily  tamed,  being 
of  a  gentle,  docile  dis- 
position. Their  attach- 
ment to  their  master, 
and  the  ease  with  which 
they  are  taught  to  pipe, 
are  their  principal  recom- 
mendations. In  their 
natural  state  they  construct  their  nest  in  the  most  inaccessible 
part  of  the  thicket,  usually  in  a  black  or  white  thorn  bush.  This 
is  composed  of  small  dry 
twigs,  lined  with  fibrous 
roots. 

The  SISKIN  (Carduelis 
spinus,  Yarrell),  Fig. 
227,  may  be  mentioned 
among  the  numerous 
songsters  which  charm 
with  their  melodious 
notes.  It  is  very  pretty, 
although  less  richly  co- 
loured than  the  Gold- 
finch and  others,  its  con- 
geners. It  is  neat  and 
compact  in  form ;  its  bill 
resembles  that  of  the 
Goldfinch,  but  is  more 


Fig.  227. — Siskins  (Frincjilla  spinus,  Penn.). 


compressed,  the  two  man- 
dibles in  some  specimens  meeting  only  at  the  base.     The  plumage 
is  soft,  blended,  and  glossy. 


518 


PASSERINES. 


The  HOUSE  SPARROW  (Passer  domesticus,  Yarrell),  Fig.  228,  is 
among  the  most  interesting  of  the  Passerinae.  It  abounds  all  over 
Europe,  from  its  most  southern  regions  up  to  extreme  north. 

Every  one  is  acquainted  with  this  little  bird ;  lively,  pert, 
and  cunning,  the  true  gamin  of  the  winged  race.  It  lives  in 
flocks  in  the  neighbourhood  of  dwelling-houses,  and  even  in  the 
heart  of  large  towns ;  it  is  familiar,  but  its  familiarity  is  circum- 
spect and  sly.  It  haunts  our  streets  and  public  places,  but  is 
careful  to  keep  men  and  boys  at  a  respectful  distance.  It  has  a 

notion  that  the  friendship 
of  the  great  is  dangerous, 
and  its  prudence  counsels 
it  to  avoid  intimacies  which 
might  have  troublesome 
consequences;  it  is  only 
after  multitudinous  proofs 
of  good  offices  that  the 
Sparrow  will  form  an  un- 
reserved treaty  of  friend- 
ship with  man.  The  Sparrow 
quoted  by  Buffon,  which 
not  only  followed  its  soldier 
master  everywhere,  but 
would  recognise  him  from 
all  the  others  in  the  regi- 
ment, proves  they  are  both 
intelligent  and  capable  of 

Fig.  228. — House  Sparrows  (Fringitla  domestica,  Perm.).    oflpppf  "nT1 

Sparrows  are  eminently  sociable,  seeking  their  food  and  building 
their  nests  near  each  other,  whether  it  be  in  crevices  of  walls 
or  under  the  eaves  of  houses,  in  hedges  or  trees,  or  in  the  deserted 
nests  of  Swallows,  which  they  have  the  effrontery  to  appropriate. 
In  their  nest,  which  is  a  bulky,  soft,  and  warm  structure,  lined 
with  wool,  bristles,  and  hair,  the  female  deposits  from  four  to  six 
eggs  three  times  a  year  ;  their  fecundity  is  consequently  very  great. 
They  are  omnivorous,  but  prefer  seeds  and  the  larvae  of  insects  to 
all  other  food. 

Oceans  of  ink  have  flowed  to  prove  the  ravages  committed  by 


THE  GOLDFINCH. 


519 


Sparrows  on  the  corn-fields,  and  to  demonstrate  that  they  should  be 
exterminated  by  the  farmer.  But  it  is  now  generally  agreed  that 
the  Sparrow  is  a  benefactor,  and  belongs  to  the  list  of  useful 
birds.  Have  we  not  seen  in  the  Palatinate  that  after  the  Sparrow 
was  proscribed  and  exterminated,  the  inhabitants  were  under  the 
necessity  of  reimporting  them  in  order  to  arrest  the  ravages  of 
insects,  which,  in  consequence  of  this  bird's  absence,  had  multiplied 
in  a  frightful  manner  ? 

The  GOLDFINCH  (Carduelis  elegans,  Yarrell),  Fig.  229,  is  at  the 
same  time  the  most  gentle  and  peaceful  of  birds,  and  one  of  the 
prettiest  of  European  races.  It  has  the  back  brown,  the  face  red, 


Fig.  229.— Goldfinches  (FringMa 
carduelis,  Linn.). 


Fig.  230.— Linnets  ( b "ring ilia 
linota,  Penn.). 


with  a  bright  yellow  spot  upon  each  cheek ;  its  voice  is  full,  sweet, 
and  harmonious ;  it  is  exceedingly  docile,  easily  tamed  and  raised 
as  a  cage-bird ;  in  the  aviary  it  soon  becomes  familiar,  testifying 
great  attachment  to  those  who  take  charge  of  it ;  it  readily  learns 
to  sing  and  go  through  various  exercises,  such  as  drawing  up 
the  vessel  containing  its  food  and  drink,  firing  a  miniature  cannon, 
and  other  similar  tricks. 

The  LINNETS  (Linota  cannabina,  Yarrell),  Fig.  230,  have  con- 


520  PASSEEINES. 

siderable  analogy  to  the  Goldfinch.  They  are,  like  them,  ex- 
tremely sociable,  except  at  the  period  of  incubation  ;  that  duty  over, 
the  individuals  begin  to  muster  in  small  flocks  towards  the  end  of 
autumn,  which  increase  as  the  winter  advances,  when  they  betake 
themselves  to  sheltered  districts,  and  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
villages  and  farm-houses  in  search  of  food.  They  associate  with 
various  species,  such  as  the  Mountain  Linnet,  Green  Linnet,  and 
other  small  birds.  The  nest  of  the  Linnet  is  generally  placed  in  a 
bush  of  furze  or  heath.  It  is  a  neat  structure,  formed  externally 
of  blades  of  grass  intermingled  with  moss  and  wool,  and  lined 
with  hair  of  various  kinds;  sometimes  with  thistle-down.  The 
female  lays  from  four  to  six  eggs,  of  an  oval  form,  colour -bluish 
white,  marked  with  distinct  spots  of  brownish  black,  purplish 
grey,  and  reddish  brown.  Should  the  nest  be  destroyed  during 
incubation,  the  pair  will  build  again,  and  lay  two  or  three  sets  of 
eggs  if  needful ;  but  the  male  is  said  to  take  no  part  in  the 
building  or  incubation,  although  he  watches  the  female  with  great- 
solicitude,  supplying  her  with  food  during  the  process. 

The  Linnets  feed  principally  on  hemp  and  linseed,  whence  their 
popular  name.  In  the  winter  season,  in  the  absence  of  their 
favourite  food,  they  attack  the  young  buds  of  trees,  and  pick  up 
the  stray  seeds  about  farm-yards.  Their  song  in  confinement 
is  remarkably  sweet,  brilliant,  and  varied,  but  will  not  compare 
with  the  thrilling  voice  of  the  Blackbird  or  Thrush.  The  species 
are  numerous,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  but  there  is  a  tend- 
ency to  reduce  their  number,  and  to  regard  them  as  seasonal 
varieties  of  the  species  under  consideration. 

The  CHAFFINCH  (Fringilla  coelebs,  Linn.),  Fig.  231,  lives  in  flocks, 
except  when  breeding,  like  the  Goldfinch  and  Linnets.  But  they 
differ  from  these  members  of  the  group  in  this — that  their  wing 
is  less  compact,  and  that  they  disperse  themselves  more  in  search 
of  food  than  their  congeners.  Chaffinches  are  met  with  all  over 
Europe,  either  as  birds  of  passage  or  as  permanent  residents. 
They  feed  on  various  kinds  of  seeds  and  larvae  of  insects,  the  latter 
of  which  they  obtain  in  the  early  mornings  of  summer  and  autumn 
by  searching  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves  of  oak,  ash,  and  other 
trees.  They  inhabit  indifferently  the  woods,  gardens,  or  high 
mountain  ridges.  In  the  early  days  of  spring  the  mellow,  modu- 


CANARIES. 


521 


lated  "tweet,  tweet,  tweet "  of  the  Chaffinch  is  exceedingly  pleasant 
to  hear  ;  but  its  monotony  is  apt  to  fatigue,  for  its  eternal  refrain 


Fig.  231. — The  Chaffinch  (Fringttla,  Gesner). 


makes  it  seem  an  affectation  of  gaiety,  whence  probably  the  French 
proverb,  Gai  comme  un  pinson. 

The  CANARIES  (Fringilla  canaria,  Linn.),  are  only  known  by  us 


Fig.  232.— Canaries  (Carduelis  canaria,  Wood). 


as  cage-birds,  where  they  are  recognised  by  their  yellow  plumage, 
more  or  less  varied  with  green,  although  the  facility  with  which 


522  PASSERINES. 

they  breed  with  the  Linnet,  Goldfinch,  and  others  of  the  group,  has 
introduced  great  varieties  of  colouring.  Originally  from  the 
Canary  Islands,  they  were  first  imported  into  Europe  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  such  was  the  charm  of  their  song,  added  to 
their  natural  docility  and  gay  plumage,  that  every  one  was  eager 
to  possess  them.  Buffon  says,  in  his  elegant  manner,  that  if  the 
Nightingale  is  the  songster  of  the  woods,  the  Canary  is  the 
chamber  musician.  Their  race  propagates,  moreover,  so  rapidly 
that  the  poorest  can  aiFord  to  possess  them ;  for  these  elegant 
little  creatures  are  to  be  found  among  every  grade  of  society, 
pouring  out  their  joyous  melody  in  the  garret  of  the  poor  work- 
man with  as  much  energy  as  in  the  gorgeous  saloons  of  the 
wealthy. 

There  are  two  distinct  species  of  the  Canary,  the  Plain  and 


\  Fig.  233. — Whidah  Finch,  or  Widow  Birds  (Einberiza  paradisea,  Linn.). 

Variegated,  or,  as  the  bird-fanciers  designate  them,  the  Mealy,  or 
Spangled,  and  Jonquils ;  but  between  these  innumerable  varieties 
have  sprung  up  from  cross-breeding  with  the  Goldfinch,  Linnet, 
and  Siskin.  These  cross-breeds  are  often  charming  songsters  ; 
but,  like  all  mules,  they  are  completely  sterile.  Bechstein  is  of 


WEAVER  BIRDS.  523 

opinion  that  our  Domestic  Canary  has  a  cross  of  the  Siskin  in  it : 
this  belief  for  a  long  time  existed,  but  most  naturalists  now  are  of 
opinion  that  the  Siskin  belongs  to  a  different  genus. 

The  WIDOW  BIRDS,  or  WHIDAH  FINCHES  (Vidua,  Sw.),  Fig. 
233,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  hard-billed,  seed-eating 
birds  to  which  they  belong.  The  long,  drooping  tail  feathers 
which  adorn  the  males  in  the  breeding  season  give  them  a  very 
singular  appearance.  The  upper  part  of  their  plumage  is  of  a 
faded  blackish  brown,  assuming  a  paler  hue  on  the  wings 
and  lateral  tail  feathers.  The  whole  body  is  tinged  with  this 
faded  black,  gradually  narrowing  as  it  descends  to  the  middle  of 
the  breast ;  a  broad,  rich  orange-brown  collar  proceeds  from  the 
back  of  the  neck,  uniting  with  a  tinge  of  the  same  colour  on  the 
sides  of  the  breast,  this  last  hue  passing  into  the  pale  buff  colour 
of  the  body,  abdomen,  and  thighs,  and  the  under  tail  coverts 
being  of  the  same  colour  as  the  upper  ones — a  hue  to  which 
the  bird  is  indebted  for  its  popular  and  scientific  name.  The 
tail  feathers  are  black ;  the  four  lateral  ones  on  each  side  slightly 
graduated,  and  rather  longer  than  the  one  immediately  above. 
The  next  two  are  the  long,  drooping  feathers,  externally  convex, 
so  conspicuous  in  the  male  bird,  which,  in  fine  specimens,  measure 
a  foot  in  length  from  base,  and  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
width.  The  body  of  the  bird  is  about  the  size  of  a  Canary.  They 
are  natives  of  South  Africa  and  Senegal. 

Near  to  the  Widow  Birds  in  the  system  we  may  place  the 
Java  Sparrow,  Rice  Bird,  or  Paddee  Bird  of  the  East  Indies  and 
Eastern  Archipelago  (Fringilla  oryzivora,  Sw.),  Fig.  234.  They 
are  eagerly  sought  for  as  pets,  in  consequence  of  their  brilliant 
plumage,  and  the  facility  with  which  they  learn  innumerable 
tricks. 

The  WEAVER  BIRDS  (Ploceus,  Cuvier)  close  the  series  of  Frin- 
gillidcB.  They  live  in  flocks  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  where 
they  feed  on  the  cereals  and  the  young  of  weaker  birds.  They 
chirp,  but  have  no  song ;  and  they  owe  their  name  to  the  in- 
imitable art  which  they  display  in  constructing  their  nests.  These 
vary  in  form  according  to  the  species,  and  are  composed  of  grass, 
rushes,  and  straw.  They  are  usually  suspended  from  the  branches 
of  a  tree,  the  entrance  being  below.  Sometimes  they  are  spiral- 


524 


PASSEEINES. 


shaped,  occasionally  round;  in  fact,  they  are  of  every  imagin- 
able outline.  Mr.  Swainson  describes  the  nest  of  a  species  of 
Loxia  built  on  a  branch  extending  over  a  river  or  a  pool  of 
water,  shaped  like  a  chemist's  retort  suspended  from  the  head, 
while  the  shank  was  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  was  the  entrance,  all  but  touching  the  water. 


Fig.  234.— Java  Sparrows,  or  Eice  Birds  (Loxia  oryzivora.  Linn.). 

Another  species  of  the  Ploceincz  construct  their  nests  in  a  clump 
under  one  roof  or  cover,  each  nest  having  a  separate  entrance 
on  the  under  side,  but  not  communicating  with  that  next  it. 
Another  variety  is  said  each  year  to  attach  a  new  nest  to  that  of 
the  previous  year,  and  nothing  is  more  picturesque  than  these 
groups  of  nests  thus  suspended  to  the  branches  of  a  tree. 

But  the  most  curious  of  birds,  in  respect  to  nidification,  are  the 
Republican  Weaver  Birds  (Loxia  socia,  Latham).  These  establish 
themselves,  to  the  number  of  five  or  six  hundred,  upon  the  same 
tree,  constructing  their  nests  under  a  common  roof,  the  one  back- 
ing against  the  other,  like  the  cells  of  a  bee-hive,  all  living 
together  in  the  happiest  manner. 

The  BUNTINGS  (Emberizidce)  are  intimately  associated  with  the 
Passerine  birds.  They  are  characterised  by  a  short,  stout,  conical 
bill,  the  upper  mandible  narrower  than  the  lower,  its  dorsal  outline 


BUNTINGS. 


525 


nearly  straight,  sides  convex,  edges  inflected,  the  tip  acute ;  the 
lower  mandible  has  the  angle  short,  broad,  and  rounded.  In  the 
palate  is  a  hard,  bony  knob  to  bruise  the  seed  which  forms 
their  principal  food.  Their  general  habitat  is  the  fields  and 
hedges  upon  the  margin  of  woods ;  some  few  species  haunt  the 
banks  of  rivers.  They  build  their  nests  on  the  ground,  or  on 
low  bushes,  and  in  this  they  deposit  four  or  five  eggs.  The  young, 
when  hatched,  are  blue.  Their  plumage  is  deficient  in  brilliancy, 


Fig.  235.— The  Reed  Bunting  ( Emberiza 
sclicenidus,  Yarrell). 


Fig.  236.— The  CM  Bunting  (Emberiza 
cirlus,  Yarrell). 


but  their  song  is  not  without  attractions.  In  autumn,  when 
they  leave  the  colder  regions  to  go  south,  fattened  with  the  rich 
produce  of  the  harvest-fields,  they  have  a  rich,  delicate  flavour, 
and  are  then  in  France  eagerly  sought  after  for  the  table,  and 
frequently  brought  to  market  along  with  Larks  and  Ortolans. 

The  Buntings  are  divided  into  the  Buntings  properly  so  called, 
in  which  the  claw  of  the  back  toe  is  short  and  hooked,  and  the 
Spurred  or  Lark  Buntings  (Plectrophanes,  Meyer),  in  which  it  is 
long,  straight,  compressed,  and  slightly  arched.  To  the  first  of 


526  PASSEEINES. 

these  divisions  belongs  the  Reed  Bunting  (Emberiza  schceniclus, 
McGrillivray),  Fig.  235,  which  may  be  considered  the  type  of 
the  group,  and  is  a  constant  resident  all  the  year  round  in 
France  and  England,  but  migratory  in  Scotland  and  other 
northern  countries. 

The  Girl  Bunting  (E.  cirlus),  Fig.  236,  on  the  other  hand, 
although  found  in  Devon  and  Cornwall,  and  other  parts  of 
England,  is  only  plentiful  in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  does  not  migrate  into  the  colder  regions. 


Fig.  237. — The  Ortolan  Bunting  (Emberiza  hortuluna,  McGrillivray). 

The  Ortolan  Bunting  (E.  hortulana,  Yarrell),  Fig.  237,  so 
well  known  to  gourmets  and  pot-hunters  of  Southern  Europe, 
migrates  periodically.  Some  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of 
England,  but  they  were  evidently  stragglers,  driven  there  by 
accidental  circumstances.  They  abound  on  the  northern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Western  Central  Asia,  in  France,  and 
as  far  north  as  Norway,  where  they  are  known  to  breed.  Their 
favourite  resorts,  according  to  Meyer,  are  the  borders  of  woods, 
hedges,  and  fields,  near  a  water-course,  clothed  with  low  willows 
and  bushes.  They  are  very  shy  :  still  great  numbers  are  captured 
in  nets,  when  they  are  kept  in  confinement,  and  crammed  for 
the  table. 


TITMICE.  527 

The  Snow  Bunting  (Plectrophanes  nivalis,  Gould)  rarely  shows 
itself  in  France,  and  Montagu  describes  them  as  rare  in  England, 
but  McGrillivray  found  them  in  considerable  flocks  all  over  Scotland, 
from  the  Outer  Hebrides  to  the  Lothians.  On  the  4th  of  August, 
1830,  being  on  the  summit  of  Ben-na-muic-dhu,  one  of  the  loftiest 
mountains  in  Scotland,  he  observed  a  beautiful  male  flitting  about 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  drift  of  snow,  and  some  days  after, 
in  descending  from  Lochnagar  on  a  botanising  expedition,  he 
noticed  a  flock  of  eight  individuals  flying  about  among  the 
granite  rocks  of  a  corry,  evidently  a  family.  "It  is,  therefore," 
he  thinks,  "  very  probable  that  it  breeds  on  the  higher  Grampians." 

The  Conirostral  Passerines  include  the  family  of  Paridce,  or 
TITS.  The  Titmice,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  small  birds, 
seldom  attaining  the  size  of  the  Common  Sparrow.  Their  general 
form  is  moderately  full,  the  head  large  in  proportion,  and  broadly 
ovate.  Their  bill  is  straight,  short,  and  tapering,  furnished  with 
hairs  at  the  base,  but  their  individuality  is  distinguished  by  their 
specific  peculiarities  rather  than  by  physiognomy.  A  charac- 
teristic feature  is  their  audacity,  almost  approaching  to  impu- 
dence, and  their  courage,  the  instinctive  result  of  their  sociability. 
These  qualities  secure  for  them  a  well-defined  place  in  the  group 
under  consideration. 

Who  discovers  the  Owl  during  the  day?  Who  besieges  him 
with  its  clamours  ?  Who  pursues  him  with  unintermitting  blows 
of  his  bill  ?  Who  rouses  the  whole  tribe  of  small  birds  against 
the  nocturnal  tyrant  ?  It  is  the  Titmouse.  Bellicose  as  bird  can 
be,  it  gives  full  scope  to  its  most  warlike  instincts  whenever  a 
suitable  occasion  presents  itself,  its  want  of  physical  power  being 
compensated  for  by  the  vigour  of  its  assault.  The  Tit  is,  indeed,  the 
incarnation  of  motion ;  it  is  continually  on  the  qui  vive,  skipping 
from  branch  to  branch,  at  one  moment  piercing  the  crevices  of 
the  bark  with  its  bill  in  search  of  food,  the  next  hanging  sus- 
pended from  a  branch,  to  which  it  clings  with  its  claws,  while 
it  picks  off  the  insects  which  occupy  the  lower  surface  of  the 
leaves. 

Nevertheless,  it  varies  its  food  according  to  seasons  and  cir- 
cumstances. Not  only  does  it  devour  all  kinds  of  insects,  not 
excepting  wasps  and  bees,  but  even  cereals  and  fruits.  It  is 


528  PASSERINES. 

even  carnivorous,  for  it  has  been  known  to  kill  weak  or  sickly 
birds  in  order  to  devour  them.  Some  species  have  a  most  un- 
natural partiality  for  grease,  and  devour  it  whenever  opportunity 
offers.  They  are  sociable  birds,  inhabiting  thickets  or  woods, 
living  in  flocks  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  showing  ^strong 
attachment  to  each  other,  so  that  a  flock  of  them  will  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  decimated,  and  even  altogether  destroyed,  rather  than 
desert  a  wounded  companion.  In  the  spring  they  pair,  and  each 
isolated  couple  now  seek  out  a  suitable  place  in  which  they  may 
rear  their  future  progeny. 

The  position  of  the  nest  varies  with  the  species.  The  Great 
Tit,  or  Oxeye  (Parus  major,  Selborne),  builds  in  the  hole  of 
some  wall,  or  in  a  cavity  formed  in  a  decayed  tree.  It  is  usually 
composed  of  moss,  hair,  and  feathers.  The  Blue  Tit  (P.  cceruleus, 
Selborne)  occasionally  builds  its  nest  in  very  insecure  places. 
Mr.  Duncan,  one  of  Mr.  McGillivray's  correspondents,  in  a  MS. 
note  now  before  us,  says,  "  In  the  year  1836  I  discovered  the  nest 
of  a  pair  of  Blue  Tits  in  the  shaft  of  a  pump  well,  which  was 
drenched  and  partly  carried  away  every  time  water  was  drawn ; 
still  they  persevered  in  building.  Gladly  would  I  have  left  them 
there,  but  they  kept  the  water  in  a  continually  muddy  state,  and 
their  removal  became  absolutely  necessary."  The  Coal  Tit  (P. 
ater,  Selborne)  chooses  the  crevice  of  a  wall  or  decayed  tree. 
So  does  the  Marsh  Tit  (P.  palustris,  Selborne).  The  Crested 
Tit  (P.  cristatus,  Selborne),  Fig.  238,  is  a  retiring,  solitary 
little  bird,  provided  with  plumage  both  brilliant  and  beautifully 
blended.  They  are  rarely  seen  in  England,  but  several  flocks 
are  recorded  as  appearing  in  Scotland.  They  are  said  to  breed 
annually  in  plantations  near  Glasgow,  in  the  forest  of  Glenmore, 
and  near  the  Spey  two  were  killed  in  1836.  In  the  North  of 
Ireland,  in  autumn,  they  are  not  uncommon  wherever  plantations 
of  larch  trees  are  to  be  found.  Their  nest,  according  to  Temminck, 
occurs  in  holes  of  trees,  the  oak  being  preferred,  in  rocks,  or  in  a 
deserted  Crow's  or  Squirrel's  nest. 

The  nest  of  the  Long-tailed  Tit,  or  Mufflin  (P.  caudatus), 
is,  perhaps,  the  most  skilful  specimen  of  construction.  It  is 
oval  in  form,  and  has  two  openings,  one  for  entrance,  the  other 
for  exit — an  arrangement  which  the  long  tail  of  the  bird  renders 


LARKS.  529 

necessary.  This  singular  bird — the  most  diminutive  of  our  birds 
except  the  Kinglets — differs  from  the  Tits  in  its  softer  and  more 
bulky  plumage  and  tail.  Its  flight  is  undulating  and  rapid  ;  its 
long  tail  and  body  muffled  up  to  the  chin  in  dense  plumage  giving 
the  observer  the  idea  of  an  arrow  flying  through  the  air. 

The  Tits  abound  throughout  Europe,  and  are  also  found  in 
America ;  some  of  them  remaining  all  the  year  with  us,  although 
they  are  all  birds  of  passage. 

The  LARKS    (Alaudince)    complete   the   Conirostral   Passerinse . 


Fig.  238.— The  Crested  Tit  (Parus  cristatus,  Selbcrne). 

They  are  distinguished  by  the  great  muscularity  of  their  gizzard, 
and  their  elongated  and  slightly- curved  claws,  which  are  sometimes 
longer  than  the  toe  itself,  indicative  of  a  ground-bird ;  in  short, 
they  pass  their  lives  on  the  ground,  in  the  bosom  of  great  grassy 
plains,  or  soaring  in  the  air.  This  family  renders  eminent  service 
to  agriculturists  by  the  enormous  quantity  of  worms,  caterpillars, 
and  grasshoppers  it  daily  devours. 

The  Lark  builds  its  nest  in  a  furrow,  or  between  two  clods  of 
earth,  without  much  skill  it  is  true,  but  with  sufficient  intelli- 
gence to  know  that  it  is  necessary  it  should  be  concealed.  Here 
it  lays  four  or  five  eggs,  spotted  or  freckled ;  in  favourable  seasons 
three  sets  of  eggs  in  the  year  are  sometimes  hatched.  The 
young  birds  break  the  shell  after  fifteen  days'  incubation,  and 

M  M 


530  PASSEEINES. 

are  in  a  condition  to  leave  their  cradle  at  the  end  of  fifteen 
more ;  but  the  mother  still  continues  her  surveillance,  guides 
their  steps,  satisfies  their  wants,  and  continually  hovers  near 
them  until  the  demands  of  another  brood  take  her  away,  when 
they  are  abandoned  to  themselves,  being  now  so  fully  fledged  as 
no  longer  to  require  maternal  care. 

The  Lark  is  the  living  emblem  of  happy,  peaceful  labour,  the 
songster  of  the  cultivated  earth.  In  the  early  dawn  the  male 
bird  rises  aloft,  and  with  soaring  wing  fills  the  air  with  his 
joyous  notes,  and  calls  the  husbandman  to  his  labour.  Higher  and 
higher  he  mounts,  until  he  is  lost  to  sight ;  but  his  voice  is  still 


Fig.  239. — The  Crested  Lark  (Alauda  cristata,  Linn.). 

heard.  The  song  is  significant ;  it  is  the  hymn  of  good  fellowship 
— a  call  to  all  the  dwellers  of  the  plain. 

The  season  of  incubation  over,  the  Larks  assemble  in  numerous 
flocks,  having  now  only  their  food  to  think  of;  and  that  being 
plentiful,  they  soon  get  plump  and  fat.  In  countries  like  France 
this  is  the  signal  for  their  destruction,  for  persons  assemble 
from  all  quarters  to  make  a  razzia  on  these  valuable  innocents, 
using  every  means  to  accomplish  their  work  of  death ;  and  unless 
the  legislature  interfere  in  their  behalf  by  passing  laws  for 
their  preservation,  it  will  finish  probably  by  exterminating  the 
race. 

Taking  Larks  by  means  of  a  mirror  is  a  ruse  based  upon  the 
natural  curiosity  of  this  species,  which  leads  it  irresistibly  towards 
any  reflected  light.  The  slaughterer  places  a  glass,  or  any 


SWALLOWS.  531 

object  that  will  reflect  the  sun's  rays,  in  a  field,  concealing  him- 
self in  its  neighbourhood.  The  Larks,  attracted  by  the  light, 
come  within  reach  of  his  blows,  and  fall  around  the  mirror, 
undismayed  by  the  fate  of  their  companions. 

In  this  family  the  only  species  which  lives  in  confinement  is 
the  Sky-lark,  and  that  only  by  very  great  care.  It  sings  un- 
ceasingly in  a  cage,  and  even  imitates  the  song  of  other  birds. 
Larks  are  found  all  over  the  Old  World,  especially  in  Europe 
and  Asia.  The  principal  species  are  the  Sky-lark  (Alauda 
arvensis),  the  Crested  Lark  (Alauda  cristata),  the  Wood  Lark 
(Alauda  arborea),  and  the  Shore  Lark  (Alauda  alpestris). 

The  Crested  Lark  (Alauda  cristata),  Fig.  239,  abounds  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  but  is  rare  in  this  country,  one  or  two 
specimens  only  being  recorded.  It  is  migratory,  moving  north- 
ward in  spring,  and  again  toward  the  south  on  the  approach 
of  winter.  It  is  a  handsome  bird,  about  the  size  and  appear- 
ance of  the  Sky-lark,  having  a-  few  feathers  on  the  crown  forming 
a  crest  pointing  backwards. 

FISSIROSTRES. 

The  Fissirostral  Passerine  are  characterised  by  a  broad,  short 
bill,  flattened  horizontally,  and  slightly  hooked ;  mandibles  slightly 
concave ;  mouth  very  wide.  They  are  essentially  insectivorous.  They 
comprehend  three  genera: — 1.  Swallows  (Hirundd).  2.  House 
Martins  (Chelidori).  3.  Sand  Martins  (Cotyle). 

The  SWALLOWS  are  recognisable  by  their  long  pointed  wings, 
forked  tail,  and  excessively  short  tarsi.  The  air  is  the  true 
element  of  these  birds  ;  they  fly  with  a  facility,  lightness,  and 
rapidity  quite  inconceivable ;  indeed,  their  existence  is  one  eternal 
flight.  They  even  feed  their  young  on  the  wing  when  the  latter 
first  begin  to  fly.  Watch  them  in  the  air,  and  they  will  be  seen  to 
rise  and  fall,  tracing  the  shortest  curves,  crossing  and  interlacing 
each  other's  course,  moderating  their  pace  suddenly  when  at  their 
utmost  speed  in  order  to  follow  the  eccentric  course  of  some  winged 
insect  which  they  have  doomed  for  their  food.  Such,  indeed,  is  the 
rapidity  of  their  progress  that  some  of  the  species  have  been  known 
to  travel  at  the  rate  of  thirty  leagues  an  hour. 

M  M  2 


532  PASSERINES. 

This  wonderful  power,  however,  is  only  developed  at  the 
sacrifice  of  another  locomotive  faculty,  for  they  are  bad  walkers. 
"With  their  short  limbs,  activity  on  their  feet  is  impossible ;  and 
if  by  chance  they  are  placed  on  the  ground,  with  difficulty  they 


Fipr.  240.— Window  Swallows  (Flirundo  tustica,  Linn.). 


rise  again  on  the  wing.  On  the  other  hand,  their  sight  is 
excellent — equal  to  even  that  of  the  Eagle  or  Falcon.  According 
to  Spallanzani,  who  made  numerous  experiments  on  the  Swallows, 


SWALLOWS.  533 

the  Martin  perceives  the  winged  fly  passing  through  the  air  at  the 
distance  of  more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  yards. 

Swallows  are  celebrated  for  their  migratory  journeys.  In  the 
early  days  of  spring  they  reach  Europe,  not  in  flocks,  but  as  iso- 
lated individuals  or  in  pairs.  They  occupy  themselves  almost 
immediately  either  in  repairing  their  last  year's  nests,  or,  if  these 
have  been  destroyed,  in  constructing  new  ones.  Among  the  arrivals 
are  many  young  birds  of  the  previous  year  which  have  not  had 
nests,  and  yet  it  is  not  a  little  extraordinary  that  these,  after  six 
months'  absence,  return  with  unerring  certainty  to  the  old  dwelling 
where  hatched.  This  fact  has  been  too  often  recorded  to  admit  of 
any  doubt  on  the  subject. 

The  form,  structure,  and  locality  of  the  Swallow's  nest  vary 
with  the  species.  The  Common  Swallows  (H.  rustica),  Fig.  240, 
build  theirs  in  the  upper  angles  of  the  window  of  some  country 
house,  under  the  eaves  of  a  roof,  or  on  the  interior  wall  of  a 
chimney.  A  chimney  seems  an  odd  place  to  select  for  such  a 
purpose ;  and  White  of  Selborne  relates,  not  without  some  expres- 
sions of  wonder  at  such  a  choice,  that  near  the  middle  of  May 
one  of  these  little  birds  began  to  form  her  nest  about  five  or  six 
feet  down  a  chimney  adjoining  the  kitchen  fire.  Their  nests  con- 
sist of  a  crust  or  shell  of  mud  mixed  with  straw,  and  lined  with 
fine  grass  and  feathers.  Other  species,  sometimes  in  vast  numbers, 
establish  themselves  in  the  clefts  of  dead  trees.  Audubon  esti- 
mated at  the  incredible  number  of  eleven  thousand  the  quantity  of 
Swallows  which  had  taken  up  their  dwelling  in  a  sycamore  tree 
(familiarly  known  there  as  a  button  wood)  near  Louisville,  Ken- 
tucky, United  States.  Some  Swallows  prefer  rocks  or  caverns, 
and  hollow  out  in  steep  escarpments  a  gallery  from  two  to  three 
feet  in  depth,  at  the  extremity  of  which  they  place  their  nest. 
Sometimes  the  nest  is  formed  of  twigs  torn  by  the  bird  from  the 
dead  branches  of  trees,  and  bound  together  by  a  viscous  liquid 
which  flows  from  the  bird's  mouth. 

When,  after  a  month's  labour,  the  Swallows  have  finished  their 
dwellings,  the  female  deposits  from  four  to  six  eggs.  Incubation 
commences,  and  continues  from  twelve  to  fifteen  days,  during 
which  the  male  bird  exhibits  intense  interest  in  the  proceedings, 
carrying  food  continually  to  his  mate,  and  passing  the  night  in 


534  PASSERINES. 

her  immediate  vicinity,  twittering  and  chirping  all  day  long  to 
cheer  the  mother  at  her  task.  Two  or  three  times  in  the  season 
they  thus  raise  a  family. 

From  the  time  when  the  little  ones  are  hatched  the  parent  birds 
attend  them  with  all  the  care  their  feebleness  demands,  and 
often  exhibit  remarkable  proofs  of  affection.  When  the  young 
Swallows  feel  strong  enough  to  try  their  wings,  the  old  ones  ten- 
derly guide  them  on  their  first  attempts  at  flight,  and  teach  them 
how  pursuit  of  insects  in  the  air  is  successfully  performed.  Boer- 
haave  quotes  an  instance  where  a  Swallow,  returning  from  some 
distant  excursion,  found  the  house  in  which  it  had  built  its  nest 
in  flames.  It  did  not  hesitate  an  instant  to  throw  itself  into 
the  fire  in  order  to  save  its  young. 

Swallows  generally  prefer  the  proximity  of  a  lake  or  river, 
the  surface  of  water  being  always  the  rendezvous  of  crowds  of 
insects,  among  which  they  can  reap  a  plentiful  harvest.  Swallows 
are  extremely  sociable  ;  they  assemble  in  large  flocks,  and  appear 
to  be  bound  together  by  strong  attachment,  for  they  aid  each 
other  in  trying  circumstances. 

"  I  have  seen  a  Swallow,"  says  Dupont  de  Nemours,  "  which 
was  unfortunate,  and  had,  I  know  not .  how,  entangled  its  foot  in 
a  ball  of  string,  one  end  of  which  was  attached  to  the  roof  of  the 
College  of  the  Four  Nations ;  its  strength  was  exhausted,  and  it 
hung  uttering  painful  cries  at  the  end  of  the  string,  only  endea- 
vouring to  release  itself  occasionally  by  fluttering  attempts  at 
flight.  All  the  Swallows  between  the  Tuileries  and  the  Pont 
Neuf,  and  perhaps  for  a  much  greater  distance,  were  assembled  to 
the  number  of  many  thousands,  forming  a  perfect  cloud,  uttering 
cries  of  alarm.  All  that  came  flew  past,  giving  a  peck  of  their 
bill  at  the  fatal  string ;  these  blows,  being  frequently  repeated, 
and  always  directed  at  the  same  spot,  were  finally  successful, 
for  in  half  an  hour  the  string  was  cut  and  the  captive  set  at 
liberty." 

Another  fact,  related  by  the  great  naturalist  Linnaeus,  proves  how 
strong  is  the  spirit  of  brotherhood  with  these  birds.  When  the 
Window  Swallows  returned  in  spring  to  take  possession  of  their 
nests,  a  certain  number  of  them  were  found  occupied  by  Sparrows. 
•One  of  the  more  legitimate  proprietors,  thus  despoiled  of  his  pro- 


SWALLOWS.  535 

perty,  endeavoured  by  every  possible  means  to  recover  possession, 
but  all  was  unavailing.  Under  these  circumstances  the  assistance 
of  its  companions  was  demanded.  The  whole  assembly  proceeded 
to  besiege  the  intruder.  It  resisted,  intrenching  itself  in  its  fort, 
and  in  revenge  the  ousted  Swallows  brought  mud  in  their  bills, 
and  actually  walled  up  the  entrance  to  the  citadel  and  entombed 
the  interloper  in  his  cell.  The  truth  of  this  account,  which  is 
repeated  by  many  naturalists,  has  been  denied  ;  but  Mr.  McGil- 
livray,  than  whom  we  have  no  more  reliable  author,  records  three 
well-authenticated  similar  instances. 

The  Swallow  generally  leaves  us  in  the  month  of  September  in 
order  to  seek  a  milder  climate,  and  one  providing  more  abundant 
food  in  winter.  Some  time  before  their  departure  their  cries  are  in- 
cessant, and  great  agitation  is  seen  in  their  ranks ;  they  assemble  in 
some  elevated  place,  as  if  to  hold  council  and  deliberate  over  their 
journey,  and  fix  the  date  of  their  departure;  finally,  a  day  is 
decided  on,  which  when  it  arrives,  all  the  Swallows  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood mass  at  an  appointed  place,  and  after  certain  evolutions, 
intended,  no  doubt,  to  determine  the  route,  they  advance  in  one 
mass  towards  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  whence  they  pass 
into  Africa.  Although  they  are  of  all  birds  the  strongest  on  the 
wing,  and  best  adapted  for  a  long  journey,  they  cannot  accom- 
plish this  without  rest  if  adverse  winds  should  arise.  Ships 
passing  are  frequently  boarded  by  stragglers  which  light  on 
the  rigging;  and  both  at  Gibraltar  and  Tangiers  large  flocks  are 
occasionally  seen  to  arrive  in  a  state  of  great  exhaustion.  Those 
stragglers  which,  through  weakness  or  the  duties  of  maternity, 
are  prevented  from  joining  the  great  flocks,  depart  some  days 
later  in  smaller  parties.  Occasionally,  however,  a  few  individuals 
seem  to  remain  with  us  all  the  year  round,  contriving  to  survive 
the  most  severe  winters,  which  has  given  rise  to  the  supposition 
that  the  Swallow  has  the  power  of  hibernating,  or  of  remaining 
in  a  state  of  torpor  during  the  winter,  and  returning  to  animation 
in  the  spring.  This  much-controverted  point  has  now  been  con- 
signed among  the  mythical  legends  to  which  it  belongs. 

Swallows  have  in  all  ages  possessed  the  sympathies  of  man- 
kind,- some  of  the  ancients  regarding  them  as  sacred  birds ;  nor 
are  they  ungrateful  for  the  good  feeling  they  excite.  The 


536 


PASSEEINES. 


services  they  render  in  destroying  vast  quantities  of  noxious 
insects,  not  to  speak  of  their  gentle  habits,  mutual  attachment 
to  each  other,  and  the  happy  presage  they  hring  with  them 
of  spring's  advent,  contribute  to  make  them  welcome  visitors. 
Nevertheless  there  are  instances  where  these  proper  sentiments 
yield  to  the  love  of  destruction — where  their  innocent  confidence 
is  rewarded  by  death. 

Swallows  generally  have  the  breast  and  belly  white,  and  the 


Fig.  241.— The  Cliff  Swallow  (Hirundo  fulva,  Gin.). 

upper  parts  of  the  body  black,  tinted  with  a  reflected  blue  or  peach 
colour.  There  are  about  sixty  species  spread  over  the  globe,  of 
which  six  only  are  natives  of  Europe.  They  are  divided  into 
Swallows  proper  (Hirundo),  Martins  (Chelidons),  Sand  Martins 
(Cotyle),  and  Swifts  (Cypselus).  The  Martins  are  larger  in  size 
than  the  true  Swallows  ;  have  the  wings  longer,  and  consequently 


SALANGANE  SWALLOW. 


537 


their  powers  of  flight  are  greater  and  their  speed  more  sustained ; 
their  claws  are  more  robust  and  hooked. 

The  principal  species  we  have  already  named.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  mention  the  Cliff  Swallow  (Fig.  241),  the  Chimney  Martin, 
the  Bank  Martin,  and  the  Alpine  Swift  (Cypselus  alpinus), 
Fig.  242. 

Among  the  foreign  species  the  SALANGANE  SWALLOW  (Fig.  243) 


Fig.  242.— The  Alpine  Swift  (Cypselus  melba,  Woodj. 

may  be  mentioned,  so  famous  over  the  world  for  its  edible  nest. 
This  bird  inhabits  the  rocks  and  caverns  of  the  sea-shore  in 
Sumatra  and  Java.  When  building  it  eats  of  the  plant  called 
fucus,  which  abounds  in  these  regions ;  this  is  metamorphosed  in 
the  bird's  stomach,  and  afterwards  disgorged,  to  fabricate  the 
walls  of  its  nest.  The  fucus  thus  devoured  forms  the  nutritive 
substance  so  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  Eastern  gourmet.  The 


538 


PASSEEINES. 


consumption  of  the  nest  of  the  Salangane  (Fig.  244)  in  China,  in 
spite  of  its  high  price,  is  very  considerable.  From  the  days  of 
Bufibn  there  have  been  exported  from  the  coast  of  Cochin  China 
four  millions  of  them  annually ;  and  the  proprietors  of  one  cavern 
in  the  island  of  Java  receive  annually  fifty  thousand  florins  for 
rent  alone. 

The  distinctive  features  of  the  GOATSUCKERS  (Caprimulgus)  are  a 


Fig.  243. — The  Salangane  Swallow  (Hirundo  escutenta,  White). 

short,  much-depressed  bill ;  the  body  small  in  proportion  to  the 
plumage ;  the  neck  short ;  the  head  large,  broad,  and  depressed ; 
the  eyes  very  large  and  broad ;  the  feet  very  small ;  tarsi 
partially  feathered ;  toes  four,  the  lower  surface  broad  and 
flattened,  the  anterior  toes  connected  by  basal  membranes ;  claws 
moderate,  arched,  and  compressed.  The  plumage  is  full,  soft, 
downy,  and  blended,  like  the  Owl's ;  the  wings  have  the  second 
and  third  quills  longest ;  tail  long  and  rounded.  Almost  all  the 
species  have  strong  bristles  along  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible, 


GOATSUCKERS. 


539 


and  some  have  the  feathers  of  the  face  radiated,  like  those  of  the 
Owls. 

The  Goatsuckers  are  solitary  birds,  living  generally  in  pairs, 
sleeping  during  the  day,  and  issuing  from  their  nest  with  the 
setting  sun,  or  possibly  earlier  in  gloomy  weather,  to  chase  the 
crepuscular  and  nocturnal  insects  on  which  they  feed.  They 
move  silently  and  with  great  rapidity.  Some  authors  say  that 
when  on  the  wing  they  keep  the  mouth  open ;  but  this  is  not. 


Fig.  2-14.— Nest  of  the  Salangane  Swallow. 

supported  by  facts,  and  is  opposed  to  reason.  The  insects  they 
principally  devour  are  moths,  dragon-flies,  beetles,  crickets,  cock- 
chafers, and  mosquitoes.  Their  usefulness,  therefore,  is  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  the  Swallow.  As  they  get  very  plump  and 
fat  in  the  autumn,  they  fall  a  sacrifice  to  the  gunner,  and  in 
their  turn  are  eaten  by  gourmets  greater  than  themselves. 


540  PASSEEINES. 

They  are  migratory  birds,  travelling  only  during  the  night. 
They  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  bristles  at  the  base  of  the 
bill,  and  by  the  claws  of  the  middle  toe,  which  is  toothed. 
The  object  of  this  toothed  appendage  has  been  the  subject  of 
speculation.  Some  writers  fond  of  the  marvellous  even  surmise 
that  it  is  intended  to  comb  and  smooth  the  head  feathers.  Mr. 
Vigors  is  of  opinion  that  it  may  be  useful  as  a  further  power 
of  prehension,  citing,  in  support  of  his  view,  the  family  of  the 
Ardeida  among  the  Wading  birds,  which  exhibit  an  analogous 
construction  in  the  middle  nail. 

Through  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  Australia  the 
Goatsuckers  are  diffused,  and  naturalists  have  divided  them  into 
several  sub- gen  era,  such  as  Podargus,  represented  by  Podargus 
kumeralis  of  the  Gold  River,  and  Podargus  javanensis,  the  Chabba- 
wonno  of  Java,  and  the  Guacharo  Bird,  Steatornis  villot  of  Hum- 
boldt  and  Bonpland. 

The  typical  species  of  Caprimulgus  is  the  NIGHT-JAR  (C.  euro- 
paeus),  Fig.  245.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  Thrush;  and 
Montagu  states  that  he  observed  on  one  occasion  a  flock  of  eight 
or  ten  on  the  wing  together,  in  the  dusk  of  the  evening,  skimming 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  after  the  manner  of  Swallows,  in 
pursuit  of  insects.  Its  nest  is  of  the  simplest  kind,  for  it  deposits 
its  eggs  on  the  bare  ground,  or  upon  a  few  dry  leaves.  These 
eggs,  in  number  only  two,  are  hatched  by  the  female  in  fourteen 
days. 

The  Common  Night-jar  is  chiefly  found  on  furzy  commons, 
wild  bushy  heaths,  and  broken  hilly  ground  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  thickets  and  woods.  During  the  day  it  lies  concealed  in  the 
scrub,  issuing  forth  in  the  balmy  summer  evenings  to  pursue  its 
insect  prey  on  the  wing. 

On  the  prairies  of  North  America,  especially  those  inter- 
sected by  sloughs,  dozens  of  these  birds  may  be  seen  at  the 
hour  of  sunset,  their  swift,  powerful,  and  graceful  flight  being 
worthy  of  the  greatest  admiration.  They  are  there  called  Bull 
Bats,  and  are  often  accused  by  the  ignorant  of  the  crime  of  sucking 
milk  from  cows — about  as  probable  as  snakes  being  guilty  of  the 
same  offence  ;  yet  there  are  hundreds  who  believe  in  such  im- 
possibilities. 


DENTIBOSTKES. 


541 


The  Night-jar  is  a  bird  of  evil  omen  in  the  estimation  of  our 
rural  population  :  such  it  has  been  considered  since  the  days  of 
Aristotle,  and  possibly  even  further  back.  The  reverse  should  be 
the  case,  for  the  benefit  it  produces  by  clearing  the  air  of  noxious 
insects  is  incalculable. 

The  GUACHAROS  are  singular  birds,  which  were  first  described 
by  MM.  Humboldt  and  Bonpland  as  being  found  in  the  interior 
of  a  vast  Columbian  cavern — the  Grotto  of  Caripe.  Their  -hooked 
bill  and  general  aspect  are  more  robust  than  the  Night-jars,  for 


Fig.  245.— The  Night-jar  ( Caprimulgus  europceus,  Sw.). 

they  more  resemble  birds  of  prey.  They  inhabit  in  thousands  the 
deep  recesses  of  the  caverns  of  the  Cumana  Chain,  hanging  to 
the  walls  by  their  pointed  claws.  In  these  caves,  which  they 
only  leave  during  the  night,  they  build  their  nests.  Unlike 
their  congeners,  they  feed  only  on  grain  and  seeds.  The  Indians 
of  Caripe  enter  these  sombre  domains  from  time  to  time,  and  make 
raids  upon  their  ranks,  for  they  are  deservedly  esteemed  as  great 
delicacies. 

DEXTITIOSTRKS. 

The  Passerine  Dentirostres  are  characterised  by  a  bill  more  or 
less  strong,  compressed  on  each  side  of  the  point.  They  feed  on 
berries  and  insects,  and  comprehend  numerous  genera,  including 
the  Fly-catchers  \Muscicapidce),  the  Manakins  (Piprince),  the 


542  PASSEEINES. 

"Warblers  (Sylvince),  the  Lyres  (Lyra),  the  Orioles  (Oriolus),  the 
Philedons  (Meliphagidce),  the  Dippers  (Cucelus),  the  Thrushes 
(Turdus),  the  Tanagers  (Tanagrince) ,  the  Caringas  (Coradna),  and 
the  Butcher  Birds  (Lanius). 

M.  Lesson  thinks  the  Musdcapidce  should  consist  of  the  genera 
Tyrannus,  Monacha,  Eurylaimus,  Platyrkynchus,  Todus,  Myiagra, 
Musdcapa,  Alectrurus,  Drymophila,  Formidvora,  Rhipidura, 
Seisura,  Psophodes,  and  Emcurus.  Of  these,  Eurylaimus  have  a 
very  large,  depressed,  and  cleft  bill.  They  are  of  more  elegant 
form  than  plumage  ;  for  their  colouring  is  devoid  of  brilliant 
tints.  They  live  a  retiring  life  in  marshes,  and  upon  the  banks 
of  lakes  and  rivers,  feeding  upon  the  worms  and  insects  which 
abound  in  such  localities.  They  are  about  the  size  of  the  Thrush, 
and  they  inhabit  the  isles  of  Oceania. 

The  MANAKINS  (Piprince,  Sw.)  have  the  bill  rather  short;  the 
upper  mandible  much  curved,  and  pierced  with  large  nostrils; 
the  feet  longish,  slender,  and  weak ;  the  external  toes  reverted 
towards  the  middle.  These  birds  are  natives  of  South  America, 
and  are  gifted  with  brilliant  plumage. 

The  Rupicola  (Briss.),  or  Cock  of  the  Hock,  is  remarkable  for 
the  lively  and  delicate  shades  of  the  colour  of  its  plumage, 
and  for  a  graceful  crest  which  decorates  its  crown.  It  prefers 
sombre  localities,  and  retires  into  clefts  and  caverns  when  pursued. 
It  is  very  wild,  and  only  issues  from  its  hiding-place  in  search 
of  the  fruits  which  form  its  food.  Under  the  most  favourable 
circumstances  these  birds  are  difficult  to  approach,  taking  flight 
at  the  slightest  appearance  of  danger.  Their  name  comes  from 
their  size,  and  also  from  their  habit  of  scratching  up  the  earth,  and 
flapping  their  wings  like  the  Domestic  Cock.  They  are  natives  of 
South  America  and  Malaya.  The  best-known  species,  Rupicola 
aurantia  (Vieillot),  is  a  native  of  Gruiana ;  its  plumage  is  bright 
orange,  and  the  crest  is  formed  by  two  rows  of  feathers,  so 
arranged  as  to  form  a  semicircle. 

The  WARBLERS  (Sylmance,  Sw.)  are  readily  recognised  by  their 
short,  slender,  and  tapering  bill,  constituting  a  numerous  series  of 
birds,  among  which  we  note  the  Fauvette  (Sylvia  hortensis),  Gold- 
crested  Wren  (Regulus  auricapellus),  the  Wren  (Troglodytes),  the 
Whin  Chats  (Saxicola],  and  many  other  genera. 


THE  NIGHTINGALE.  543 

All  these  are  of  small  size,  and  have  the  singular  property 
of  imparting  a  vibratory  motion  to  their  tails.  They  are  chiefly 
denizens  of  our  woods,  thickets,  and  gardens,  where  they  fill 
the  air  with  their  melody.  They  are  generally  migratory, 
arriving  in  the  spring,  and  departing  at  the  fall  of  the  leaf. 
Living,  except  in  autumn,  almost  exclusively  on  insects  and 
their  larvae,  they  render  in  this  respect  eminent  services  to 
man;  but  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  at  that  period  these  birds 
cease  to  be  insectivorous,  and  feed  on  fruits — among  others,  figs 
and  grapes,  whence  the  name  of  Bec-figues  applied  to  them 
in  the  South  of  France.  There  they  are  most  eagerly  sought 
for,  the  attraction  being  their  flesh,  which  is  considered  most 
delicate. 

Warblers  prefer  the  woods  and  sloping  hill- sides,  or  the  banks 
of  rivers,  clothed  with  trees  and  shrubs,  for  their  residence. 

In  the  first  rank  of  the  Warblers  stands  the  NIGHTINGALE 
(Philomela  luscinia,  Selby),  Fig.  246,  celebrated  all  over  the  world 
for  its  song,  which  is  superior,  without  any  doubt,  to  that  of  all 
other  birds.  In  size  it  is  somewhat  greater  than  the  Garden 
Warbler,  which  it  resembles  in  its  homely  attire.  Many  have  been 
the  attempts  made  to  describe  this  far-famed  bird.  Naturally 
shy,  the  Nightingale  retires  into  the  freshest  and  most  sheltered 
places,  rarely  exposing  itself  to  observation.  Brushwood  and 
thickets,  witch-elms  and  evergreen  trees,  growing  on  the  banks 
of  some  retired  water-course,  are  it's  favourite  dwelling.  It  is 
among  these  that  it  establishes  its  nest,  built  without  care,  at 
irregular  height,  and  sometimes  even  on  the  ground.  It  possesses 
this  peculiarity — that  it  sings  not  only  during  the  day,  but  also 
in  the  night ;  but  let  any  alarming  noise  approach  its  retreat, 
and  it  stops  instantly.  It  seems  to  love  solitude  above  all  things. 
Audubon,  the  American  naturalist,  has  described  some  of  the  dis- 
tinctive characteristics  of  the  bird  with  a  few  graphic  touches. 
He  has  left  his  downy  couch,  and  sallied  forth  to  watch  the 
eventful  moment  when  nature  arises,  fresh,  blooming,  and  full  of 
renovated  vigour.  In  his  wanderings  he  comes  upon  a  Nightingale. 
"  In  the  midst  of  a  thicket,"  he  says,  "I  now  see  a  solitary  bird, 
humble  in  its  attire,  and  of  most  modest  mien,  peeping  at  me  with 
a  caution  so  uncommon,  and  yet  so  inviting,  that  I  feel  tempted  to 


544 


PASSERINES. 


seek  its  acquaintance.  With  care  I  approach  the  feathered 
stranger.  Its  form  is  somewhat  elongated,  yet  not  incompact ; 
its  eyes  are  large,  and  of  peculiar  mildness ;  it  stands  rather  high, 
on  a  pair  of  light  flesh-coloured,  and,  as  it  were,  transparent  legs ; 
its  wings,  which  are  of  moderate  length,  droop,  and  seem  at 
intervals  to  tremble  ;  and,  as  it  moves  from  one  twig  to  another, 
I  see  it  hops,  or  leaps,  and  does  not  walk  step  by  step,  like  many 
other  birds.  Its  colour  is  a  dull  brownish  olive,  but  the  hind 
part  of  the  back  and  the  tail  are  of  a  richer  tint,  though  corre- 
sponding with  the  general  hue.  At  this  moment  it  flies  lightly  to 


Fig.  246.  -The  Nightingale  (Luscinia  Philomela,  Wood). 

the  ground,  hops  a  few  steps,  picks  up  a  grub,  and  returns  to  its 
former  station." 

"The  Nightingale,"  says  McGillivray,  "which  in  summer  is 
spread  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Continent,  extending  its 
migrations  to  Sweden  and  the  temperate  parts  of  Russia,  arrives 
in  the  South  of  England  about  the  middle  of  April,  or  a  few  days 
later,  should  the  weather  be  severe.  The  females,  according  to 
various  observers,  come  from  a  week  to  ten  days  after  the  males. 
Individuals  settle  in  the  southern  counties,  including  part  of 
Devonshire,  in  the  eastern  and  midland  districts,  and  as  far  north 


THE  SEDGE  WARBLER. 


54-3 


as  York  and  Carlisle ;  but  none  are  to  be  seen  in  Cornwall,  Wales, 
or  the  north- western  parts  of  England,  although  it  is  found  much 
farther  north  on  the  Continent."  It  is  alleged  that  the  migration  of 
the  Nightingale  does  not  extend  into  Scotland.  Mr.  Duncan,  one  of 
Mr.  McGillivray's  most  reliable  correspondents,  states  that  a  pair 
of  Nightingales  arrived  in  Calder  Wood,  in  West  Lothian,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  summer  of  1826.  "Before  and  about  midnight, 
when  the  full  moon  shone  bright  and  clear,  the  warble  of  the  male 
was  first  heard ;  it  soon  attracted  a  number  of  admiring  listeners, 
who  hastened  to  the  spot.  The  owner  of  the  wood  was  anxious 
to  preserve  them,  thinking  they  might  breed ;  but,  in  spite  of  his 
care,  the  male  was  shot,  upon  which  the  female  left  the  wood." 
In  France  they  arrive  singly,  and 
depart  alone  about  the  middle 
of  August,  in  order  to  pass  into 
Africa  or  Asia. 

The  SEDGE  WARBLER  (Sati- 
caria  phragmites,  Yarrell)  is  a 
delicate,  lively  little  bird,  haunt- 
ing the  margins  of  streams  and 
pools  overgrown  with  weeds, 
sedges,  and  other  aquatic  plants, 
in  the  midst  of  which  it  seeks 
its  food,  and  nestles  so  secretly 
that  it  very  frequently  eludes 
observation.  Mr.  McGillivray 
found  a  nest  of  this  species  on 
the  marshy  borders  of  Dud- 
dingston  Loch,  near  Edinburgh. 
It  was  placed  in  the  midst  of 
a  large  clump  of  Solanum  dulca- 
mara, supported  by  the  branches, 
and  so  hidden  that  he  only  found 
it  after  cutting  off  a  great  number  of  flowering  twigs.  This  nest 
was  composed  of  leaves,  grasses,  and  other  slender  plants,  loosely 
but  neatly  put  together. 

The  NIGHT  WARBLER  (Salicaria  arundinacea,  Yarrell),  Fig.  '247, 
closely  resembles  the  preceding  in  form  and  size.     Its  song  is 


Fig.  247.— The  Night  Warbler  (Salicaria 
arundinacea,  Yarrell). 


546  PASSEEINES. 

loud,  cheerful,  and  much  diversified,  night  being  generally 
selected  for  the  display  of  its  vocal  powers.  Its  nest  is  composed 
of  blades  and  stalks  of  grasses,  lined  with  finer  plants  and  hair  ; 
is  of  a  conical  form,  with  the  apex  downwards ;  in  depth  from 
four  to  five  inches  externally,  and  three  in  the  interior,  and  as 
much  in  breadth  at  the  top  ;  and  is  fastened  to  the  stalks  of  several 
reeds,  placed  some  distance  above  the  ground — "an  arrange- 
ment," says  Montagu,  "  which  gives  security  to  the  eggs/'  which 
are  four  or  five  in  number,  of  an  oblong  shape,  greyish-brown 


Fig.  248.— The  Kobin,  or  Redbreast  (Erythaca  rubecula,  Yarrell). 

colour,    spotted   with   dark  olive,  and  usually  marked  with  one 
or  two  blackish,  irregular  lines. 

The  Warbler  known  to  French  writers  as  la  Fauvette  Cou- 
turiere  is  the  most  curious  of  all  in  respect  to  the  manner  of 
building  its  nest.  Aided  by  bill  and  claws,  it  stretches  out  into 
a  thread  fibres  gathered  from  the  trees  ;  selecting  broad  resistant 
leaves,  it  drills  them  with  its  bill,  sews  them  together  with  the 
cotton  which  it  has  prepared,  and  in  this  manner  constructs  a 
bag  which  serves  the  purpose  of  completely  hiding  its  nest  from 


THE  ROBIN. 


547 


the  observation  of  enemies.  This  species  belongs  to  India  and  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  is  unknown  in  Europe. 

Among  other  well-known  species  we  may  mention  the  GARDEN 
"WARBLER  ( Carruca  hortensis,  Selby),  known  also  as  the  White- 
throat,  Greater  Prettychaps,  and  other  pet  names ;  also  the  BLACK- 
CAP (Sylvia  atricapilla) ,  both  of  which  abound  near  dwelling- 
houses  surrounded  by  gardens. 

The  ROBIN,  or  REDBREAST  (Fig.  248),  is  too  familiar  a  friend 


Fig.  249.— Wrens  (Regulus  cristatus,  Temm.). 

to  require  description.  It  is  lively,  pert,  pugnacious,  cheerful, 
and  a  universal  favourite.  In  April  the  Robin  betakes  itself 
to  the  woods  and  thickets,  where  it  rears  its  brood.  On  the 
approach  of  winter  it  returns  to  civilised  life,  when,  as  M.  Figuier 
informs  us,  it  constitutes  excellent  game  !  No  doubt  it  is  edible ; 
but  where  is  the  consumer  of  such  to  be  found?  Not  in  the 
British  Islands,  we  hope. 

The  WRENS  (Motacilla)  are  the  smallest  of  European  birds. 

N  N  2 


54S 


PASSERINES. 


The  Golden -crested  Kinglet  (Motacilla  regulus.  Linn.),  Fig.  249, 
inhabits  the  woods  and  thickets  of  the  cold  and  temperate 
regions  of  the  earth,  where,  among  the  twigs,  with  great  agility 
it  searches  for  insects,  on  which  it  feeds.  While  thus  occupied 
it  emits  a  single  shrill,  feeble  note,  too  often  accepted  by  heart- 
less boys  as  a  tell-tale  of  its  whereabouts. 

The  European  Wren  ( Troglodytes  europceus,  Cuvier),  Fig.  250,  is 
widely  diffused  over  Europe,  from  Greenland  to  the  southern  parts 
of  Italy,  and  from  Trebizond  to  the  west  coast  of  Ireland.  Like 


Fig.  250. — The  Common  or  European  Wren  (MotacUta  troglodytes,  Liuu.). 

the  Robin,  it  has  become,  in  a  sense,  a  sacred  bird,  and  few 
venture  to  commit  any  outrage  on  the  familiar  little  creature. 
Its  nest  is  found  in  all  kinds  of  situations ;  a  favourite  one 
being  under  the  turfed  summit  of  a  stone  wall  skirting  a  brook, 
or  on  the  edge  of  a  wood  or  shrubbery.  It  is  an  elegant 
structure,  oval  in  form,  and  dome- shaped,  with  the  entrance 
at  the  side,  the  materials  varying  with  the  locality  ;  but  the 
lining  generally  is  soft,  downy  feathers. 

The  Wood  Warbler,  or  Wood  Wren  (Motacilla  trochilus,  Bewick), 
Fig.  251,  is  a  delicate,  active  little  bird,  pretty  generally  diffused. 
It  is  of  retiring  and  unobtrusive  manners,  its  favourite  haunt  being 
among  the  willows  and  osiers  which  skirt  some  sluggish  stream. 
While  flitting  about  in  such  localities  it  emits  a  small  chirping 


THE  STONE  CHAT. 


549 


noise ;  but  during  the  months  of  May  and  June  it  is  often  heard 
chanting  a  soft,  mellow,  and  very  pleasing  song.  In  autumn 
great  numbers  of  them  may  be  seen  gliding  among  the  fruit  trees 
and  bushes. 

The  STONE  CHAT  (Saxicolarubicola,  Temm.),  Fig.  252,  has  the  head 
and  throat  black  in  the  male,  the  breast  brownish  red,  the  sides  of 
the  neck  white,  a  white  spot  on  the  wings,  the  upper  parts  brownish 
black,  and  the  feathers  edged  with  brownish  red.  In  the  female  the 
head  and  upper  parts  are  streaked  with  brownish  red,  the  throat 


Fig.  251.— The  Wood  Warbler,  or  Wood  Wren  (Sylvia  siLilatrix,  Bechstein). 

yellowish  grey,  the  breast  dull  brownish  red,  a  white  spot  on  the 
wings,  and  the  upper  tail  coverts  yellowish  red.  "  In  April,"  says 
McGillivray,  "  it  forms  its  nest,  generally  under  some  furze  bush, 
or  other  shrub,  or  among  rank  grass;  it  is  formed  of  stems  and 
blades  of  grasses,  intermixed  with  moss,  and  lined  with  finer 
straws,  fibrous  roots,  hair,  and  wool,  as  well  as  feathers.  These 
birds  manifest  intense  anxiety  should  any  one  approach  their  nest, 
fluttering  and  flitting  about,  and  incessantly  emitting  their  sharp, 


550 


PASSERINES. 


snapping  note,   while  endeavouring  to  lead  the  intruder  off  in 
pursuit  of  themselves." 

The  WAGTAILS  (Motadlla,  Cuvier)  are  remarkable  for  their  slender, 


Fig.  252.— The  Stone  Chat  (Saxicola  rubicola,  Temm.). 


elegant  form  ;  the  neck  of  moderate  length  ;  the  head  ovate,  small, 
and  narrow ;  plumage  soft  and  blended ;  the  wings  long,  broad, 


Fig.  253.— Tne  Pied  Wagtail  (Motadlla  ^arrelli,  Gould.) 

and   pointed ;    tail   long,   straight,  slender,   consisting  of  twelve 
weak,  narrow  feathers.     The  Wagtails  are  intimately  allied  to  the 


WAGTAILS.  531 

Pipits,  and  resemble  them  in  many  of  their  habits,  differing 
chiefly  in  the  lengthened  tail  and  shorter  claws.  Both  are 
remarkable  for  the  vibratory  motion  of  their  body  while  stand- 
ing or  walking,  which  their  long  tail  renders  a  conspicuous 
feature. 

The  Pied  Wagtail  (Motacilla  cinerea,  Gmelin),  Fig.  253,  which 
is  generally  distributed  in  England,  seems  to  have  been  con- 
founded with  the  White  Wagtail  (Motacilla  alba,  Linn.)  by  natu- 
ralists until  both  species  were  examined  by  Mr.  Gould.  In  form 


Fig.  254.— Quaketails  (MotacilLi  flava,  Temm.). 

and  proportion  the  two  species  closely  resemble  each  other,  the  Pied 
Wagtail  being  the  smaller.  Mr.  Gould  states,  in  the  "  Magazine 
of  Natural  History,"  that  while  preparing  his  work  on  the  Birds 
of  Europe  he  was  surprised  to  find  that  the  sprightly  Pied  Wag- 
tail, so  common  in  our  island  at  all  seasons,  could  not  be  referred 
to  any  described  species,  and  that  its  habitat  was  limited  to  the 
British  Islands,  Norway,  and  Sweden.  The  true  Motacilla  alba 
of  Linnaeus,  on  the  -other  hand,  is  abundant  in  France,  particu- 
larly in  the  neighbourhood  of  Calais,  but  has  never  been  dis- 
covered on  the  opposite  Kentish  coast. 

The  QUAKETAILS  (Budytes,  Cuv.),  Fig.  254,  form  the  transition 
from  the  Pipits  to  the  Wagtails,  but  incline  more  to  the  latter. 


552  PASSERINES. 

They  are  the  Bergeronnettes  of  French  authors.  The  claw  on  the 
hind  toe,  which  is  long,  and  greatly  resembles  that  of  the  Larks, 
distinguishes  them  from  Wagtails.  They  are  said  to  follow 
flocks  of  sheep  ;  hence  the  name  given  them  in  France. 

The  TITLARKS,  or  PiriTs  (Anthus),  the  Farlouses  of  French 
writers,  approach  the  Larks  by  the  same  characteristics  which 
distinguish  the  Quaketails,  and  might  be  confounded  with  them 
were  it  not  for  their  compressed  bill.  Hence  their  name  of  Meadow 


Fig.  255.— The  Lyretail  (Meenura  paradisea,  Vieill.). 


Larks.  They  feed  on  autumnal  fruits.  Antkus  trivialis,  the  Tree 
Pipit;  A.  pratemis,  the  Meadow  Pipit;  A.  aquations ;  and  A. 
Eicardi  are  the  British  species  figured  by  Mr.  Gould. 

The   LYRETAIL  (Meenura  superba,   Swainson),    Fig.  255,  is  a 
bird  of  New  Holland,  about  the  size  of  a  common  Fowl,  and  has 


ORIOLES. 


553 


been  classed  by  some  naturalists  among  Gallinaceous  birds ;  but 
Temminck  places  it  in  his  Insectivorous  order,  among  the  Thrushes, 
and  between  Cuculus  and  Pitta.  Cuvier  places  it  among  the  Pas- 
serines. Vigors  places  it  in  the  order  Rasores,  and  in  the  family  of  the 
Craciche.  This  curious  bird  has  a  long  compressed  bill,  triangular  at 
the  base.  It  owes  its  name  to  the  peculiar  disposition  of  its  tail,  which 
in  the  male  has  the  exact  form  of  a  lyre.  The  singular  develop- 
ment of  the  feathers  of  the  tail  is  its  chief  attraction,  for  the 
plumage  is  dull  and  sombre  in  colour.  In  Australia  it  inhabits  the 
forests  of  Eucalyptus  ;  builds  its  nest  in  trees,  a  short  distance  from 
the  ground  ;  and  feeds  upon  worms  and  insects,  which  it  seeks 
for  under  the  dried  leaves  and  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Its  song  is 
described  as  not  unpleasant. 

The  ORIOLES  (Oriolus,  Linn.)  have  the  bill  long,  stout,  nearly 


Fit/.  _'.:,(.}.— The  Golden  Oriole  ( Oriolus  galbula,  Sw.) . 

straight,  rather  broad  at  the  base,  the  dorsal  line  arched,  and  the 
tarsi  very  short.  They  are  found  in  all  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
Old  World,  and  in  the  islands  of -Oceania,  Their  plumage  is 
richly  coloured,  shades  of  yellow  and  black  blending  in  great 
variety. 

The  Golden  Oriole  (Oriolus  galbula,  Wood),  Fig.  250,  is  about 
the  size  of  the  Blackbird,  which  it  much  resembles  in  form.     The 


g54  PASSERINES. 

plumage  is  of  a  bright  yellow ;  the  feathers  are  oblong,  with  dis- 
united barbs  ;  those  on  the  fore  part  of  the  head  very  short.  The 
wings,  when  closed,  reach  to  within  an  inch  of  the  end  of  the  tail ; 
hence  its  flight  is  easy  and  sustained  ;  while  the  form  of  its 
feet  is  equally  well  adapted  for  hopping  on  the  ground  and  gliding 
among  the  branches.  It  is  a  shy,  solitary  bird,  and  is  approached 
with  great  difficulty.  In  the  countries  where  it  is  a  constant 
visitor  it  arrives  in  May,  and  departs  in  August ;  but  while 
it  arrives  singly,  on  its  return  migration  it  departs  in  whole 
families.  It  establishes  itself  on  the  borders  of  woods,  or  on  the 
banks  of  some  water-course;  especially  is  it  found  where  there 
are  large  trees,  such  as  oaks  and  poplars,  in  which  it  builds  its 
nest.  The  bird  is  common  in  the  South  of  France.  It  lays 
from  four  to  six  eggs,  and  during  incubation  feeds  on  insects' 
larvae  and  caterpillars,  and  is  especially  fond  of  the  more  delicate 
fruits  of  the  sunny  South,  such  as  mulberries,  cherries,  and  figs. 
This  food  gives  a  delicious  flavour  to  its  flesh,  which  causes  it  to 
be  much  sought  after.  The  Oriole  will  not  live  in  confinement. 
It  is  the  Beccafica  of  the  Italians. 

The  MINO  (Eulabesjavanses,  VieilL),  Fig.  257,  has  been  assigned 
to  various  families.  Swainson  places  it  among  the  Sturnidce,  Gray 
in  the  sub-family  of  Graculinfe,  under  the  family  of  Corvida. 
However,  we  prefer  placing  it  as  we  have.  They  are  sought 
after  by  the  Orientals  in  consequence  of  their  gentle  habits,  and 
the  facility  with  which  they  imitate,  like  the  Parrakeets,  all  sorts 
of  phrases,  and  even  airs.  Their  song  is  very  agreeable. 

The  Minos  have  a  bill  analogous  to  that  of  the  Orioles ;  but 
their  general  form  and  habits  approximate  more  to  the  Starlings, 
among  which  they  ought  to  be  ranged.  They  are  eminently 
social  in  their  habits,  searching  for  their  food  in  large  flocks, 
and  passing  the  night  in  numbers  on  the  same  or  on  neigh- 
bouring trees.  Their  natural  disposition  being  peaceful,  lively, 
and  confiding,  they  appear  to  prefer  the  vicinity  of  man's  resi- 
dence, and  the  cultivated  fields  that  surround  his  dwelling. 
They  frequently  attend  upon  flocks  of  sheep,  to  feed  upon  the 
insects  that  infest  these  ruminants'  skins.  In  countries  where 
locusts  abound,  they  are  of  great  service  to  man  by  feeding  upon 
them. 


THE  EOSE-COLOURED  OUZEL. 


555 


The  Isle  of  Bourbon  was  at  one  time  so  infested  with  locusts 
that  it  threatened  to  become  uninhabitable.  The  idea  was  enter- 
tained of  introducing  some  Minos,  and  these  birds  multiplied  so 
fast  that  in  a  few  years  the  pests  had  disappeared.  Unfortunately, 
the  services  of  the  Minos  had  to  be  paid  for  dearly,  for  they 
showed  a  penchant  for  fruit,  and  made  great  havoc  among  the 
cherries,  mulberry  trees,  &c.  When  insects  became  scarce  they 
even  attacked  the  cereals  and  other  crops. 


Fig.  257. — The  Mino  Bird  (Grucula  rvligiutsu.  Linn.). 

These  Passerines  readily  habituate  themselves  to  confinement, 
and  in  a  short  time  become  as  tame  as  Starlings.  Like  these 
birds,  too,  they  possess  the  talent  of  remembering  and  repeating 
words  and  various  cries.  They  inhabit  Africa,  Asia,  and  Java. 
In  their  migrations  they  sometimes  visit  the  southern  countries 
of  Europe ;  but  they  are  rarely  seen  in  France. 

The  HONEY-SUCKERS  (Meliphagidce)  are  remarkable  for  having  a 
thin  tuft  of  hair  at  the  end  of  their  tongue,  and  for  the  fleshy 
pendants  which  adorn  the  beaks  of  some  species.  Their  plumage 
is  in  general  brilliant,  and  ornamented  with  tufts  or  collars. 
The  voice  of  some  kinds  is  very  melodious,  but  little  or  nothing- 
is  known  of  their  habits. 

We  now  come  to  the  ROSE-COLOURED  OUZEL,  which  is  called  in 
France  Merle  Rose,  because  it  combines  the  shape  of  the  Blackbird 
with  a  breast  and  back  of  a  lovelv  rose  colour. 


556  PASSERINES. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Ouzels  are  a  straight  and  slender  bill ; 
large  and  stout  toes,  furnished  with  strong  and  hooked  claws  ;  and 
short  wings  and  tail.  The  decidedly  aquatic  habits  of  these  birds 
form  a  curious  exception  to  the  rest  of  the  Passerine  order.  They 
live  constantly  on  the  edge  of  the  water,  or  in  the  water  itself, 
hunting  for  the  insects  which  constitute  their  food.  Although  their 
toes  are  not  webbed,  they  may  often  be  noticed  diving  and  moving 
about  under  water,  by  extending  their  wings  and  using  them  as 
fins.  They  are  frequently  to  be  seen  flying  along  streams,  and 


Fig.  258.— The  Dipper,  or  Water  Ouzel  ( Cinclus  aguaticus,  Bechst.).      ' 

catching  the  winged  insects  skimming  over  the  surface  of  the 
water.  They  live  a  solitary  life,  except  during  the  pairing  season. 
Ouzels  principally  frequent  the  banks  of  mountain  streams,  espe- 
cially in  rocky  and  precipitous  countries. 

The  European  species,  called  the  Dipper,  or  Water  Ouzel 
(Hydrobata  tinclus,  Wood),  Fig.  258,  is  met  with  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  and  other  mountain  chains  in  the 
South,  West,  and  North  of  Europe. 

The  SOLITARY  or  WOOD  THRUSHES  (Turdus  mustillimes,  Gin.), 
Fig.  259,  are  distinguished  from  the  other  Dentirostral  Passerines 
by  their  long  and  slender  tarsi.  They  are  natives  of  America, 
and,  in  the  midst  of  its  vast  forests,  busy  themselves  in  hunt- 


THE  COMMON  BLACKBIRD.  ;>:>' 

ing  ants,  on  which  they  feed.  Other  insects  are  not  refused 
by  them  ;  but,  first  and  foremost,  they  are  form  Divorce.  They 
fly  indifferently,  but  in 
running  and  hopping  they 
are  very  nimble.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  they  do 
not  take  the  trouble  of 
building  a  nest,  prefer- 
ring to  lay  their  eggs  on 
the  ground,  on  a  bed  of 
dry  leaves.  Their  song  is 
of  a  strange  character, 
differing  in  its  nature  in 
the  various  species.  Some 
of  them  have  received  the 

Fig.  259.— The  Wood  Thiush  (Turdus  melodus,  Wilson). 

name    of    "  Bell-ringer, 

&c.,  from  the  similarity  of  their  note  to  the  sound  of  a  bell. 
They  are  wild  and  shy,  and  dash  their  heads  against  the  bars 
when  they  are  shut  up  in  a  cage.  Their  flesh  is  appreciated  for 
the  table. 

The  Merulicfa  genus  is  characterised  by  a  flattened,  curved,  and 
slightly  denticulated  bill,  and  is  one  of  the  most  numerous  of  the 
family,  embracing  as  it  does  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
species  spread  plentifully  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe. 

Birds  of  this  genus  are,  generally  speaking,  migratory,  and 
travel  in  more  or  less  numerous  flocks.  They  feed  on  berries, 
fruits,  and  insects,  and  are  endowed  with  very  harmonious  powers 
of  song.  They  have  been  divided  into  two  great  sections,  the 
division  being  based  on  the  particular  arrangement  of  their  colours. 
First,  the  section  of  Merulcz,  which  embraces  all  the  species  the 
plumage  of  which  is  of  a  uniform  colour ;  next,  that  of  Turdi, 
which  contains  those  of  speckled  plumage,  that  is,  marked  with 
small  dark  spots  on  the  breast. 

The  principal  species  of  the  first  section  are  the  Common  Black- 
bird, the  Rock  Blackbird,  the  Solitary  Blackbird,  and  the  Mocking 
Bird,  or  Polyglot  Thrush. 

The  COMMON  BLACKBIRD  (Merula  nrtijaris,  Hay),  Fig.  260,  is  so 
called  on  account  of  its  plumage,  which  in  the  cock  bird  is  of  a 


558 


PASSEEINES. 


uniform  bright  black  colour.  It  delights  in  neighbourhoods 
covered  with  groves  and  thickets  situated  in  the  vicinity  of 
water.  When  a  sufficiency  of  food  is  to  be  found  it  seldom 
leaves  the  district  it  has  frequented.  In  nearly  all  the  countries 
of  the  European  continent  it  is  to  be  met  with  the  year  round. 
These  birds  appear  to  be  less  numerous  in  winter  than  in  summer, 
and  it  is  only  exceptionally  that  they  are  sedentary. 

The  Blackbird  is  shy  and  artful  by  nature,  and  shows  extreme- 
caution  in  approaching  any  object  of  suspicion.  It  rarely  allows 
itself  to  be  surprised  by  man,  except  when  its  voracity  and  greedi- 


Fig.  260.— The  Common  Blackbird  (Turdus  merula,  Linn.). 

ness  lead  it  into  danger;  but  still,  notwithstanding  its  shy- 
ness, it  is  disposed  to  frequent  public  and  private  gardens,  and 
the  vicinity  of  habitations.  When  taken  young  it  easily  becomes 
accustomed  to  captivity. 

It  builds  its  nest  at  a  short  distance  from  the  ground,  on  trees 


THE  MOCKING  BIRD. 


559 


or  bushes,  the  hen  bird  only  participating  in  the  labour  of  build- 
ing. She  lays  from  four  to  six  eggs. 

In  the  South  of  Europe  this  species  is  much  sought  after,  on 
account  of  the  exquisite  flavour  which  its  flesh  acquires  from 
living  on  myrtle  and  juniper  berries. 

The  RING  BLACKBIRD  (Merula  torquata,  Gould)  differs  from  the 
kind  we  have  just  noticed  in  being  of  larger  size,  and  in  the  pre- 
dilection which  it  shows  for  mountainous  countries.  It  sings  very 
agreeably,  and  in  France  is  found  on  the  high  summits  of  the 
Vosges,  the  Alps,  and  the  Pyrenees. 

The  SOLITARY  BLACKBIRD  (Merle  Bleu  of  the  French)  is  remark- 
able for  the  deep  blue  colour  of  its  plumage.  It  frequents  the  same 
regions  as  the  bird  last  described,  and  its  habits  are  nearly  the 
same ;  but  it  is  wilder  in  its  nature,  and  its  song  is  even  still  more 


Fig.  261.— The  Mocking  Bird,  or  Polyglot  Thrush  (Mimus poiy(,lottvs,  Briss.). 

charming.  We  read  in  the  chronicles  of  his  time  that  Francis  I. 
was  never  weary  of  listening  to  the  strains  of  one  he  possessed. 
This  bird  is  common  in  the  South  of  Europe  and  the  whole  of 
the  Levant,  and  when  it  is  tamed  acquires  considerable  value. 

Of  all  the  various  species  of  the  Merulicfa  the  one  which  is 
unquestionably  the  most  favoured,  as  regards  its  vocal  qualities, 
is  the  MOCKING  BIRD,  or  POLYGLOT  THRUSH  (Turdus  polyglottm, 
Linn.),  Fig.  261,  a  native  of  North  America,  and  chiefly  of  the 


560 


PASSERINES. 


Southern  States.  Its  notes  are  so  melodious  that  the  conscientious 
Audubon  does  not  hesitate  to  rank  them  far  ahove  those  of  the 
Nightingale.  In  addition  to  this,  it  possesses  the  wonderful 
faculty  of  imitating  the  songs  of  other  birds,  and  even  the  cries  of 
the  mammals  which  make  their  abode  near  it.  For  this  reason  the 
Indians  call  it  the  "Bird  with  Four  Hundred  Tongues."  Being 
protected  by  the  inhabitants  of  Louisiana,  it  does  not  seem  to  dread 
the  presence  of  man,  and  builds  its  nest  with  the  utmost  publicity 
in  the  vicinity  of  dwellings.  When  it  is  captured  before  leaving 
the  nest  it  becomes  very  tame. 

The  principal  species  of  the  Thrush  are  the  Song  Thrush,  the 
Redwing,  the  Mistletoe,  and  the  Fieldfare. 

The  SONG  THRUSH,  Mavis  of  the  Scotch  (Fig.  2G2),  has  enjoyed, 


Fig.  -(52. — Tne  Song  Tiiruali  (2'urdus  musicus,  liHiii.J. 

ever  since  the  days  of  antiquity,  great  reputation,  not,  as  we  might 
have  desired,  for  its  vocal  powers,  but  for  the  delicacy  of  its  flesL. 
The  Romans  appreciated  these  birds  to  such  a  degree  that  they  were 
in  the  habit  of  fattening  them  by  thousands  in  immense  aviaries, 
cleverly  combining  the  privation  of  light  with  a  suitable  diet. 
Nowadays,  Thrushes  are  not  fattened  artificially,  because  they 
take  very  good  care  to  fatten  themselves  in  their  autumnal  visit 
to  the  South  of  Europe ;  for  they  gorge  themselves  to  such  an 
extent  with  grapes,  figs,  and  olives,  that  they  attain  an  incredible 


TANAGEBS.  561 

pitch  of  obesity,  causing  them  to  be  sought  after  with  avidity, 
to  gratify  the  fastidious  palate  of  the  gourmand.  It  is  even  said 
that  Thrushes  intoxicate  themselves  among  the  vines,  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  French  proverb,  "As  drunk  as  a  Thrush,"  in 
speaking  of  a  man  who  has  been  indulging  too  freely  in  wine. 
But  this  is  absurd ;  although  the  Thrush  may  be  unable  in  the 
autumn  to  fly  away  with  its  usual  agility,  the  only  cause  is  its 
increased  weight. 

The  EEDWING  shares  both  the  good  qualities  and  the  defects  of 
the  Song  Thrush,  and  it  is  likewise  much  esteemed  by  epicures. 
The  two  other  species  are  of  less  importance  in  an  edible  point  of 
view.  They  are  all  natives  of  Europe,  and  visit  the  centre  and 
South  of  France. 

The  TANAGERS  (Tanagrina)  form  a  genus  of  birds  peculiar  to  the 


Fig.  263.— Tanagers  (Tanagra  rubra,  Nutt.). 

hot  regions  of  America.  They  are  remarkable  for  a  bill  which  is 
tapering  and  triangular  at  the  base,  and  for  the  brilliant  colours  of 
their  plumage.  They  are  allied  by  their  habits  to  the  Warblers 
and  the  Sparrow.  They  are  lively,  constantly  in  motion,  and 
but  seldom  settle  down  on  the  ground.  In  general  life  they 
resort  about  among  trees  and  bushes  to  collect  berries,  seeds, 
and  insects.  According  to  the  species,  they  live  either  solitarily,  in 
families,  or  in  flocks.  Some  kinds  have  an  agreeable  song ;  among 

o  o 


562  PASSEEINES. 

these  are  the  Euphones  (beautiful  voices),  or  Bullfinch  Tanagers. 
Those  which  are  most  richly  endowed,  as  regards  the  splendour  of 
their  dress,  are  the  Scarlet  Tanager,  the  Cardinal  Tanager,  the 
Bishop  Tanager,  and  the  Black-throated  Tanager. 

The  Grosbeak  Tanager  ( Tanagra  magna,  Cuvier)  is  remarkable 
for  the  sociability  of  its  nature.  It  has  received  this  name  because, 
with  the  help  of  its  companions,  it  is  in  the  habit  of  building  on 
the  top  of  a  palm  tree  a  vast  construction,  divided  into  a  certain 
number  of  compartments,  which  are  portioned  out  to  so  many 
couples,  to  hold  their  nests  and  young  broods. 

The  DRONGO  SHRIKES  (Dicrurince,  Sw.)  resemble  a  Crow  in  their 
shape  and  a  Blackbird  in  their  size.  They  have  a  carinated  beak, 


Fig.  264.— The  Tufted  Drongo  (Tephrodomis,  Sw.). 

pretty  strongly  curved,  and  a  forked  tail.  The  ground  of  their 
plumage  is  black,  with  a  green  or  blue  metallic  reflection.  They 
live  in  small  flocks  in  the  forests  of  India,  Polynesia,  and  South 
Africa.  They  are  great  destroyers  of  bees.  The  better  to  accom- 
plish this,  they  post  themselves,  at  morning  and  evening,  at  the 
skirts  of  a  wood,  on  ^a  tree  which  is  dead  or  bare  of  leaves,  and 
watch  for  them  as  they  leave  or  regain  their  retreats.  When 
they  attack  their  prey,  they  fly  down  from  their  post  of  observa- 
tion, and  from  their  great  activity  make  terrible  massacre  of  the- 
unfortunate  insects. 


CATERPILLAR-EATEKS. 


503 


Their  turbulent  and  noisy  nature  has  been  the  means  of  gaining 
for  them  among  the  Hottentots,  who  look  upon  them  as  birds  of 
evil  omen,  the  name  of  "  Devil-birds."  Their  flesh  is  of  no  value  ; 
but  some  species  are  said  to  sing  in  a  way  which  is  not  unpleasing. 
In  the  Broad- tailed  Drongo  the  two  outside  feathers  of  the  tail  are 
long  filaments,  terminating  in  square-pointed  feathers.  "We  give 
(Fig.  264)  the  representation  of  another  species,  the  Tufted 
Drongo. 

The  genus  Cotinga  is  characterised  by  a  short,  flattened,  curved, 
and  stout  bill.  It  embraces  as  sub-genera  the  Cotinga  proper, 
the  Caterpillar-eaters,  and  the  Chatterers. 

The  COTINGA  or  CORACINA  proper  is  a  bird  about  the  size  of  a 


Fig.  265. — The  Brilliant  Cotinga  (Coracina  scutata,  Tenim.). 

Thrush ;  it  inhabits  Brazil  and  Guiana,  and  is  remarkable,  during 
the  pairing  season,  for  its  brilliant  and  variegated  plumage.  It 
frequents  damp  localities  in  the  midst  of  great  forests,  and  its 
food  consists  of  seeds,  fruit,  and  insects.  It  is  very  shy  in  its 
nature,  and  cannot  habituate  itself  to  captivity.  Its  rich  colours 
alone  cause  it  to  be  admired,  for  its  voice  is  by  no  means 
melodious,  and  its  flesh  is  too  bitter  for  human  food.  The 
most  beautiful  species  are  the  Pompadour  Cotinga  and  the 
Brilliant  Cotinga  (Fig.  265). 

CATERPILLAR- EATERS    (Cebleptyrince)    owe  their   name  to    the 
source  from  which  they  derive   their  principal  sustenance;  but 

o  o  2 


564  PASSEEINES. 

they  also  feed  on  flies  and  the  larvae  of  insects.  They  differ  from 
the  preceding  kinds  both  in  their  habitat  and  in  the  more  sombre 
colour  of  their  plumage.  The  Cotingas  are  only  met  with  in 
America ;  and  the  Caterpillar- eaters  are  not  found  except  in 
Southern  Africa  and  the  Indian  Archipelago. 

The  CHATTERERS  (Ampelidae)  are  sociable  birds,  living  together 
in  flocks  the  whole  of  the  year,  except  during  the  breeding  season. 
They  feed  on  buds,  berries,  and  insects  ;  they  even  catch  flies  on 
the  wing.  They  are,  nevertheless,  extremely  indolent,  and  do  not 
move  about  more  than  is  necessary  to  satisfy  the  requirements 
of  appetite.  The  greater  part  of  their  time  they  remain  hid  in 
the  recesses  of  woods,  and  are  rarely  seen ;  they  settle  little  on 
the  ground,  for  their  gait  is  awkward  and  constrained.  Not 


Tig.  266.— Bohemian  Waxwing  (Ampelis  garrulus,  Wood). 

endowed,  properly  speaking,  with  any  powers  of  song,  their  only 
utterance  is  a  feeble  twittering,  which,  in  some  species,  is  very 
prolonged.  The  Bohemian  Waxwing  is  noisy  at  all  seasons  ; 
and  this  is  probably  the  origin  of  the  name  Chatterer,  which  is 
given  to  the  whole  genus.  They  are  tamed  with  great  facility, 
and,  as  they  are  adorned  with  a  brilliant  plumage,  they  are  often 
reared  in  cages.  These  birds  are  found  in  Europe,  North  America, 
and  Japan. 

The  European  species  (Fig.  266)  breeds  in  northern  countries, 


THE  FLY-CATCHEE.  565 

aad  migrates  to  Germany  at  the  approach  of  winter.  It  is  rarely 
met  with  in  France.  It  is  a  very  pretty  bird,  carrying  a  floating 
tuft  on  the  top  of  its  head. 

The  birds  belonging  to  the  Fly-catcher  genus  (MuscicapidtB) 


Fig.  207. — The  Spotted  Fly-catcher  (Muscicapa  grisola,  White). 

have  a  flattened  and  hooked  bill,  furnished  with  a  projecting 
edge,  and  with  stiff  hair  at  the  base.  They  are  divided  into 
Fly- catchers  proper,  Tyrants,  and  Eurylaimince. 


Fig.  268.— King  Fly-catcher  (Eurylaimus  serilophux,  Sw.). 

The  FLY-CATCHER  proper  feeds  on  insects,  which  it  catches 
on  the  wing  with  a  vivacity  and  agility  which  are  extraordinary. 
It  sometimes  adds  to  its  fare  caterpillars  and  ants,  and  it 
never  settles  on  the  ground  except  when  in  pursuit  of  prey.  They 


560 


PASSEEINES. 


are  birds  of  taciturn  and  solitary  habits,  frequenting  alone  the 
depths  of  forests,  or  the  margin  of  sluggish  streams.  They  are 
silent  even  during  the  pairing  season,  and  are  rather  negligent  in 
their  mode  of  building,  taking  no  care  to  hide  their  nests  from  the 
view  of  their  enemies.  According  to  the  species,  they  build  either 
on  trees  and  bushes,  or  in  the  crevices  of  walls,  rocks,  or  under  the 
eaves  of  roofs.  The  hen  bird  lays  from  three  to  six  eggs  once  a 
year  in  Europe,  but  more  frequently  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
The  Fly-catchers  are  not  larger  than  the  Warblers.  They  are 


Fig.  269.— The  Long-tailed  Tyrant  (Milvulu,  Sw.). 


birds  of  passage,  and  various  species  of  them  are  spread  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  globe.  Some  are  natives  of  Europe,  among 
which  we  will  name  the  Spotted  Fly-catcher  (Fig.  267),  and  the 
Pied  Fly-catcher.  The  latter  bird  is  very  fond  of  fruit,  and  in 
the  South  of  France  it  is  killed  for  the  delicacy  of  its  flesh.  The 


TYRANTS. 


5G7 


common  name  there  given  it,  Bec-figue,  is  also  applied  to  a  species 
of  the  Warbler  genus. 

The  Fan- tailed  Fly-catchers  (RMpiduraJlabellifem^&faftm}  are 
birds  of  the  same  size  and  with  the  same  habits  as  the  Fly- catchers 
proper.  They  differ  in  nothing  but  their  plumage,  which  is  much 
more  brilliant,  their  more  fully  developed  tail,  and  the  beautiful 
tufts  which  adorn  the  heads  of  some  species.  They  are  natives  of 
Africa,  India,  Polynesia,  and  America.  The  species  which  may 
serve  as  a  type  is  the  Eurylaimus  serilophus  (Fig.  268),  on  account 
of  a  magnificent  red  tuft,  edged  with  black,  which  spreads  out 
round  its  head,  and  resembles  a  splendid  diadem.  It  is  a  native  of 
South  America,  and  is  a  very  rare  bird  in  collections. 

The  TYRANTS  (Fig.  269)  owe  their  name  to  their  courageous, 


Fig.  270,-Cephalopterus  ornatus  (Coracina  cephdloptera,  Vieill.). 

audacious,  and  quarrelsome  character,  which  leads  them  to  attack 
birds  more  powerful  than  themselves,  such  as  some  of  the  smaller 
birds  of  prey,  and  even  the  White-headed  Eagle.  It  must  be 
added,  too,  that  they  more  often  than  not  succeed  in  forcing  these 
robbers  to  quit  the  neighbourhood  in  which  the  Tyrant'*  young 
brood  is  reposing.  They  feed  on  insects,  small  reptiles,  and  some 
times  very  small  fish.  They  are  found  in  South  America  only, 
and  principally  in  Brazil  and  Guiana. 

The  Cephalopterus  ornatus  (Less.),  Fig.  270, has  some  resemblance 


568  PASSEEINES. 

to  Crows,  both  in  size  and  plumage.  Their  name,  which  in  Greek 
signifies  "  winged-head,"  is  given  them  on  account  of  a  wide  crest 
which  spreads  out  above  their  heads  like  a  parasol.  Added  to  this, 
the  front  of  the  neck  is  bare,  but  the  lower  part  is  furnished  with 
a  thick  tuft  of  feathers,  which  hang  down  over  the  breast.  These 
birds  are  natives  of  the  forests  of  Brazil,  but  little  or  nothing  is 
known  as  to  their  habits.  The  wide  shape  of  the  bill  would 
suggest  that  they  feed  chiefly  on  berries  and  fruit. 

The  SHRIKE  genus  concludes  the  Passerine  order.  It  com- 
prises a  certain  number  of  birds  with  tapering  or  flattened  bills, 
more  or  less  hooked  at  the  point,  and  deeply  indented,  and  which 
resemble  the  Rapacious  order  in  their  quarrelsome  nature,  and  in 
their  taste  for  live  flesh.  Among  them  are  classed  the  Great  Grey 
Shrike,  the  Red-backed  Shrike,  the  Yangas,  and  the  Cassicus. 

The  Shrikes  proper  possess  the  instinct  of  destruction  in  the 
very  highest  degree.  They  delight  in  shedding  blood  and  in 
spreading  death  wherever  they  go  ;  indeed,  their  evil  disposition 
has  become  proverbial.  Not  satisfied  with  killing  with  a  view  of 
satisfying  the  lawful  needs  of  hunger,  they  sacrifice,  as  if  for  mere 
pleasure,  insects,  birds,  and  small  mammals.  They  afterwards 
impale  them  upon  the  thorns  of  bushes  and  hedges. 

But  still  we  must  not  condemn  these  birds  with  too  great  a 
degree  of  severity.  No  doubt  there  is,  to  some  extent,  cruelty  in 
their  actions  ;  but,  first  and  foremost,  we  are  bound  to  recognise 
the  foresight  which  they  show.  These  victims  are  stored  as 
a  supply  in  time  of  need.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  all 
creatures  which  they  attack  are  smaller  than  themselves. 
Although  not  large,  they  are  not  afraid  of  a  contest  with  Ravens, 
Magpies,  and  even  some  of  the  birds  of  prey,  when  called  upon  to 
defend  their  young. 

Shrikes  generally  inhabit  extensive  woods.  During  the  day- 
time they  post  themselves  in  the  top  branches  of  the  trees,  from 
which  they  pounce  down  upon  their  prey.  They  fly  rather 
indifferently,  but  hover  with  great  ease.  Their  twittering  is  con- 
tinual, and  some  of  their  melodies  are  not  entirely  devoid  of  charm. 
They  are  remarkable  for  their  talent  of  imitation,  and  reproduce 
the  songs  of  all  the  other  birds  with  such  similarity  as  to  be  mis- 
taken for  them.  Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  they 


SHRIKES. 


569 


abuse  this   faculty  by  deceiving   small  birds,    whose   song   they 
imitate. 

They  migrate  every  year,  and  at  the  time  of  their  journey  are 
much  sought  after  for  the  table  ;  for  their  flesh,  being  covered  with 
abundant  layers  of  fat,  is  very  rich.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that,  in 
spite  of  their  cross-grained  nature,  they  are  very  easily  tamed. 
They  cannot,  however,  accommodate  themselves  to  close  captivity, 
their  active  natures  requiring  a  more  extended  field  of  action; 


Fig.  271. -The  Great  Grey  Shrike  (Lanius  excuf/itor,  Wood). 

such,  for  instance,  as  a  large  aviary  affords.  When  kept  in  a 
place  of  this  kind,  they  become  very  friendly,  and  appear  to  be 
fully  sensible  of  the  caresses  of  their  master. 


570 


PASSEEINES. 


Shrikes  are  common  in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  Seven  species 
are  known  in  Europe,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  Great 
Grey  Shrike  (Fig.  271),  the  Red-backed  Shrike  (Fig.  272), 


Fig.  272.— The  Bed-backed  Shrike  (Lanius  collurio,  Wood). 

and   the   Southern  Shrike.      In   France  these  birds  are  hardly 
ever  found,  except  in  the  southern  departments. 


WS^  

Fig.  273.— The  Cassicus. 

The   Falcon   Shrikes   are   sometimes   called    Swallow  Shrikes, 
because  they  fly  with  as  much  ease  as  the  Swallow,  and,  like  the 


CASSICUS.  571 

latter  bird,  pursue  insects  on  the  wing.  Their  habits,  however, 
differ  but  little  from  those  of  the  true  Shrike.  They  are  natives 
of  Africa,  India,  and  the  Southern  Archipelago. 

The  Yangas  (Buffon)  bear  a  still  greater  similarity  to  the  Shrike 
proper.  Their  habits  of  life  are  altogether  the  same ;  but  they 
are  found  only  in  South  Africa,  Madagascar,  Australia,  and  New 
Guinea. 

Lastly,  the  Cassicus  (Fig.  273)  belongs  to  America,  and  holds 
an  intermediate  place  between  the  Shrike  and  the  Crow,  the 
latter  of  which  it  resembles  in  its  gait,  size,  and  plumage.  In 
its  habits  it  is  clamorous,  turbulent,  and  omnivorous.  It  may 
be  readily  recognised  by  its  long  bill  and  the  feathers  in  front 
of  its  head. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
RAPTORES,  OH  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

Rap  tores  enjoy  a  greater  amount  of  public  notoriety  than 
almost  any  other  birds,  although  they  are  of  little  or  no  ser- 
vice to  us,  and  possess  infinitely  fewer  claims  to  our  interest 
than  a  multitude  of  other  winged  creatures.  The  audacity  and 
courage  by  which  several  species  are  distinguished,  the  marvellous 
stories  to  which  their  exploits  have  given  rise,  and  the  supersti- 
tious terror  caused  by  their  appearance  may  help  to  explain  the 
reason  of  their  popularity.  Poets  and  novel-writers,  in  order  to 
characterise  their  heroes,  have  often  inspired  them  with  the  quali- 
ties or  defects  of  some  of  the  Rapacious  birds.  They  have  made 
the  Eagle  a  type  of  nobility,  strength,  and  valour ;  the  Yulture 
the  incarnation  of  cowardly  and  unclean  cruelty.  The  Owl,  with 
its  staring  aspect  and  noiseless  flight,  has  become  with  them  a 
bird  of  ill  omen;  its  doleful  hoot  echoing  through  the  shades 
of  night,  over  the  house  of  sickness,  is  an  infallible  prediction  of 
death.  These  superstitions  have  had  considerable  influence  upon 
popular  imagination,  and  have  thus  passed  into  habitual  use  in 
conversation. 

The  Rapacious  order  is  characterised  by  a  very  strong,  hooked, 
and  sharp-edged  bill,  which  is  furnished  at  its  base  with  a  mem- 
brane called  the  cere— it  is  generally  of  a  yellow  colour,  and  upon 
it  the  nostrils  open  ;  strong  legs,  covered  with  feathers ;  four  toes, 
three  in  front  and  one  behind,  which  #re  usually  very  flexible,  and 
provided  with  crooked  and  retractile  talons,  often  possessed  of  con- 
siderable strength.  Their  powers  of  vision  are  very  great,  and  they 
are  marvellously  organised  for  flight ;  their  long  and  vigorous 
wings  enabling  them  to  hover  in  the  highest  regions  of  the  air, 
\ 

\ 


GENERAL  CHAEACTEEISTICS.  573 

and  to  travel  over  immense  distances  in  an  incredibly  short  space 
of  time. 

Their  generic  name  sufficiently  indicates  that  they  live  only  by 
rapine,  and  are  naturally  plunderers  and  bloodthirsty.  They  cor- 
respond, in  the  class  of  Birds,  with  the  Carnivora  among  Mammalia. 
Like  them,  they  live  on  animals,  either  dead  or  living  ;  like  them, 
too,  they  possess  the  strength  and  adroitness  which  are  necessary 
to  satisfy  their  sanguinary  appetites. 

With  her  ever-admirable  foresight  Nature  has  wisely  limited 
the  reproduction  of  these  destructive  creatures — the  largest  only 
lay  two  eggs  a  year ;  the  others,  on  an  average,  five  or  six.  It  is 
a  singular  thing  that  the  female  is  often  nearly  a  third  bigger 
than  the  male  ;  hence  the  name  of  "  tarsel,"  given  to  the  latter  in 
certain  species. 

The  Raptores  present  none  of  the  grace  and  charming  prattle 
of  other  races  of  birds.  They  enjoy  no  powers  of  song ;  their 
sole  utterance  consists  either  of  harsh  cries  or  strange  and  plain- 
tive modulations.  Their  plumage,  which  is  nearly  always  of  a 
sombre  colour,  is  sad  and  monotonous  in  its  appearance.  Destruc- 
tion is  the  sole  object  of  their  existence  ;  they  are  the  terror  of  all 
the  rest  of  the  feathered  creation,  among  which  they  every  day 
make  numerous  victims.  They  live  alone,  or  in  couples,  in  the 
most  deserted  places ;  it  is  only  exceptionally  that  they  gather 
together  in  flocks,  and  then  merely  to  devour  in  common  some 
putrid  carrion.  They  are  of  a  despotic  and  combative  tempera- 
ment, and  will  not  suffer  any  rivals  in  their  neighbourhood.  They 
practise  absolutism  in  its  strictest  form,  and  reign  as  lords  and 
masters  in  the  districts  which  they  choose  for  their  territory. 

The  Raptores  are  met  with  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe ; 
the  larger  species  inhabit  lofty  mountains,  or  seek  a  hiding-place  in 
the  face  of  inaccessible  and  solitary  cliffs. 

This  order  is  divided  into  two  sub- orders,  the  Nocturnal  and 
the  Diurnal.  This  division  is  a  very  rational  one,  for  it  is 
founded  on  dissimilarity  of  habits,  which  is  owing  to  a  difference 
of  organisation. 


574  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 


NOCTURNAL  BIRDS  or  PREY. 

Nocturnal  birds  of  prey  are  distinguished  by  large  staring  eyes, 
directed  straight  in  front,  and  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  slender 
and  stiff  feathers,  which,  by  their  circular  radiation  round  the 
face,  form  a  nearly  complete  disk,  to  which  the  name  of 'facial  disk 
has  been  given ;  by  the  large  development  of  their  head  ;  by  very 
short  bills,  devoid  of  cere,  which  is  replaced  by  a  plain  skin  covered 
with  hairs  ;  by  tarsi  feathered  down  to  the  claws  ;  by  the  mobility 
of  the  outside  toe,  which  can  be  turned  either  forwards  or  back- 
wards; by  very  strong,  sharp,  and  retractile  claws;  by  abundant 
and  soft  plumage ;  and  by  tails  which  are  generally  short. 

But  the  original  characteristic  of  these  birds,  and  that  which 
has  contributed  to  their  union  in  one  group,  is  their  inability  to 
bear  the  light  of  mid- day,  and  the  faculty  they  possess  of  being 
able  to  see  in  twilight,  owing  to  the  pupils  of  their  eyes  having 
enormous  powers  of  dilation.  They  therefore  remain  hidden  in 
their  retreats  while  the  sun  is  high,  and  do  not  begin  to  hunt  until 
the  luminary  has  approached  the  horizon,  when  they  are  able 
to  distinguish  with  surprising  clearness  the  objects  on  which  they 
prey. 

We  are  not,  however,  bound  to  believe  that  these  birds  can  see 
in  the  midst  of  perfect  darkness.  "When  the  night  is  thoroughly 
obscure  they  again  become  subject  to  the  law  common  to  all.  The 
epithet  of  "  nocturnal,"  which  is  applied  to  them,  is,  therefore,  not 
strictly  accurate,  and  must  not  be  taken  literally.  They  manifest 
the  greatest  amount  of  activity  when  the  moon  diffuses  her  light 
over  the  earth  ;  then  it  is  that  they  revel  in  their  destructive 
instincts,  levying  a  heavy  tax  on  all  weaker  animal  life. 

The  Eaptores  have  the  sense  of  hearing  strongly  developed, 
owing  to  the  large  cavities  existing  in  their  skulls,  which  com- 
municate with  the  internal  ear,  and  thus  increase  the  capacity  of 
this  organ. 

Their  plumage  is  streaked  with  diversely-arranged  markings, 
and  is  quite  as  soft  and  delicate  as  the  down  of  fledglings.  These 
peculiarities  are  probably  owing  to  the  special  conditions  of  their 
existence.  Constantly  deprived  as  they  are  of  the  rays  of  the 


NOCTUKNAL  BIEDS  OF  PEEY.  575 

sun,  the  action  of  which  upon  colour  of  plumage  cannot  be 
doubted,  they  are  not  arrayed  in  those  splendid  hues  which 
clothe  diurnal  birds  of  tropical  regions. 

Owing  to  the  structure  and  nature  of  their  feathers,  nocturnal 
birds  of  prey  fly  without  making  the  least  noise.  They  can,  there- 
fore,  pounce  unawares  on  their  victims,  seizing  them  before  they 
have  any  idea  of  necessity  for  escape.  When  they  lay  hold  of 
their  prey  it  is  immediately  devoured — an  easy  matter  on  account 
of  the  enormous  expansion  of  their  bills.  Their  stomach  afterwards 
separates  the  indigestible  parts,  such  as  bones,  hair,  and  feathers, 
and  when  these  are  rolled  together  in  the  shape  of  a  ball  or  pellet, 
they  are  ejected  by  vomiting.  Diurnal  birds  of  prey  which  sub- 
sist on  living  animals  possess  the  same  power. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Barn  Owl,  nocturnal  birds  of  prey 
all  lay  eggs  of  a  spherical  shape.  They  live  in  couples,  only 
assembling  in  flocks  at  the  epoch  of  migration ;  they  never,  how- 
ever, hunt  in  common.  They  do  not  build  any  nest,  but  deposit 
their  eggs  in  cavities  in  old  trunks  of  trees  or  ruined  habita- 
tions. They  exhale  a  disagreeable  and  unwholesome  smell,  which 
is  no  doubt  owing  to  their  exclusively  animal  diet. 

A  nocturnal  bird  of  prey,  unless  forced,  never  comes  out  of  its 
lurking-place  during  day.  When  compelled  by  circumstances  to 
do  so,  it  is  assailed  by  all  the  Passerines  of  the  neighbourhood, 
which  resent  its  intrusion,  and  avenge  the  oppression  exercised 
over  them  during  the  night,  by  combined  attacks.  It  places  itself 
in  the  strangest  postures,  ruffles  up  its  feathers,  and  balances  its 
head  with  a  stupid  look,  making  its  bill  crack,  when  so  assaulted. 
It  does  not,  however,  try  to  defend  itself,  and  passively  receives 
the  blows  of  its  feathered  enemies,  which  do  it  but  little  harm. 
This  natural  antipathy  of  small  birds  for  their  nocturnal  destroyers 
has  been  taken  advantage  of  for  purposes  of  sport.  The  method 
of  catching  birds  by  calling  is  founded  upon  it.  Imitating  the  voice 
of  an  Owl,  the  birds  flock  together  and  perch  on  the  trees  or 
bushes  in  the  suspected  neighbourhood,  where  twigs  covered  with 
birdlime  have  been  abundantly  scattered.  This  operation  must 
take  place  about  an  hour  before  sunset ;  if  later,  it  would  not  be 
successful.  This  way  of  catching  birds  was  in  use  in  the  days  of 
antiquity,  for  Aristotle  has  given  us  a  description  of  it. 


576  EAPTOEES,  OR  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

The  Owl  has  given  rise  to  more  fables  and  prejudices  than  any 
living  creature,  doubtless  in  consequence  of  its  peculiarities. 
Although  inoffensive  in  general,  and  even  useful — for  they  destroy 
a  large  quantity  of  rats  and  mice — in  the  rural  districts  nocturnal 
birds  of  prey  have  occasioned  so  much  superstition  and  terror, 
that  they  have  been  hunted  down  with  the  utmost  animosity. 

The  Greeks  dedicated  the  Owl  to  Minerva,  the  goddess  of 
wisdom,  no  doubt  on  account  of  the  calm  and  grave  attitude 
which  distinguishes  it,  and  gives  it  the  air  of  a  philosopher  medi- 
tating on  the  problems  of  life. 

Mr.  Swainson  divides  Owls  into  three  groups — namely,  Typical 
Owls,  Horned  Owls,  and  Hawk  Owls ;  for  simplicity  and  brevity 
we  prefer  making  only  two  families — namely,  those  with  horns  and 
those  without. 


HORNED  OWLS. 

Horned  Owls  are  distinguished  by  two  tufts  or  horns  of  feathers 
placed  on  each  side  of  their  head.  They  are  subdivided  into 
three  genera — the  Great  Horned  Owls,  the  Long-eared  Owls,  and 
Small  Horned  Owls. 

The  COMMON  GREAT  OWL  (Bubo  maximus),  Fig.  274,  is  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  family  on  account  of  its  size  and  strength. 
Its  height  is,  on  an  average,  two  feet,  and  it  is  justly  acknow- 
ledged as  the  king  of  nocturnal  birds.  Its  bill  and  claws  are 
of  a  black  colour,  very  strong  and  hooked.  Its  plumage  is 
russet,  variegated  with  black  spots  and  brown  stripes  ;  its  wings, 
when  extended,  are  not  less  than  five  feet  across.  Its  eyes  are 
large  and  fixed,  with  black  pupils  surrounded  with  yellow. 
It  bears  light  with  less  inconvenience  than  the  other  nocturnal 
birds,  and  therefore  goes  out  sooner  in  the  evening  and  returns 
home  later  in  the  morning.  This  bird  makes  its  home  among 
the  clefts  of  rocks,  or  in  the  recesses  of  old  towers  situated  on 
the  mountains,  which  elevated  ground  it  but  rarely  leaves  to 
descend  into  the  plain.  Its  cry,  huibou,  houhou,  bouhou^  ouhou, 
resounding  in  the  silence  of  the  night,  is  a  source  of  terror  to 
those  animals  which  form  its  prey.  It  feeds  principally  upon 
hares,  rabbits,  moles,  rats,  and  mice.  Now  and  then,  and  especially 


THE  GEEAT  OWL. 


577 


when  rearing   its   young,  which   are   very  voracious,  it  devours 
toads,  frogs,  and  small  reptiles. 

The  Great  Owl  is  very  courageous,  and  often  has  battles  with 
the  Tawny  Eagle,  from  which  it  frequently  comes  off  with  honour. 


Fig.  274.— Great  Owl  (Strix  bubo,  Linn.). 


The  fight  is  sometimes  so  severe  that  it  terminates  in  the  death 
of  both  combatants. 

M.  Bailly  relates  that  he  was  told,  by  reliable  witnesses,  that  an 
Eagle  and  Great  Owl,  which  were  fighting  together  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Savoy,  drove  their  claws  so  deep  into  one  another's 
flesh  that  they  could  not  withdraw  them,  so  both  died  from  their 
wounds  on  the  scene  of  action.  In  a  similar  fight  near  Zurich 
a  Great  Owl,  which  was  the  conqueror,  was  so  fastened  to  its 
adversary  that  they  fell  to  the  ground  together,  and,  being  unable 
to  disengage  its  talons,  was  in  consequence  taken  alive. 

p  P 


578  EAPTOEES,  OK  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

When  wounded  so  as  to  be  unable  to  fly,  and  attacked  by  dogs, 
the  Great  Owl  will  sell  its  life  as  dearly  as  possible  ;  for,  turning 
upon  its  back,  with  open  claws  and  menacing  bill  it  presents  an 
appearance  to  its  enemies  which  is  enough  to  make  the  bravest 
shrink  from  the  assault. 

In  spite  of  this  combative  temperament,  the  Great  Owl  easily 
becomes  tame;  it  knows  its  name,  and  comes  at  the  call  of 
its  master.  Perfect  liberty  may  then  be  safely  allowed  it,  as 
it  will  remain  in  the  neighbourhood  of  its  home,  returning  at 
meal- times.  Frisch  relates  that  he  twice  kept  birds  of  this  kind, 
and  that  they  lived  for  a  considerable  time  ;  he  fed  them  on  ox- 
flesh  and  liver.  They  would  sometimes  swallow  as  many  as  five 
mice  without  stopping,  having  first  broken  their  bones  with  blows 
from  their  bills.  In  case  of  necessity  they  would  eat  fish.  Some 
hours  after  taking  their  food,  they  ejected  the  bones  and  hair  of 
their  victims.  Instances  have  been  known,  however,  in  which 
this  Owl  would  not  submit  to  confinement. 

The  Great  Owl  is  possessed  of  the  strongest  attachment  to 
its  young.  M.  Cronstedt,  a  Swiss  gentleman,  lived  for  several 
years  on  a  farm  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  on  the  top  of 
which  a  couple  of  Great  Owls  built  their  nest.  The  servants 
caught  and  shut  up  in  a  hen-house  one  of  the  young  birds, 
which  the  thirst  for  rapine  had  doubtless  impelled  prematurely 
to  leave  the  maternal  abode.  The  next  morning  they  were  sur- 
prised to  find  at  the  door  of  the  hen-house  a  freshly- killed 
Partridge.  The  idea  was  that  the  parent  birds,  attracted  by  the 
cries  of  the  young  Owl,  had  thus  provided  for  its  sustenance. 
The  same  thing  occurred  fourteen  days  running.  M.  Cronstedt, 
wishing  to  come  to  a  right  understanding  on  the  matter, 
watched  during  several  nights  in  order  to  surprise  the  hen  bird 
in  this  act  of  maternal  love.  But  he  failed,  probably  because 
the  bird,  thanks  to  its  penetrating  sight,  took  advantage  to  leave 
her  offspring's  provisions  at  a  moment  when  his  attention 
was  diverted.  These  parental  duties  ceased  in  the  month  of 
August,  when  the  young  bird  became  capable  of  providing  for 
itself. 

The  Great  Owl  inhabits  Europe  and  Asia,  but  is  common  in 
Switzerland  and  Italy.  It  is  not  often  met  with  in  France,  except 


THE  SHOUT-EARED  OWL.  579 

in  the  eastern  and  southern  departments,  where  it  rarely  remains 
during  winter. 

Another  species,  which  is  very  common  in  Egypt,  differs  but 
little  from  the  last  mentioned.  It  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  South 
of  Sardinia  and  Sicily.  It  is  commonly  designated  by  the  name 
of  the  Great  Short-eared  Owl. 

The  VIRGINIAN  HORNED  OWL  (Bubo  virginianus],  the  Strix 
mrginiana  of  Yieillot,  inhabits  JSTorth  and  South  America.  This 
bird  is  nearly  the  size  of  the  Great  Owl  of  Europe ;  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  latter  by  a  different  arrangement  of  the 
feathered  projections  on  its  head,  which,  instead  of  starting  from 
the  ears,  take  their  rise  close  to  the  bill.  This  bird  feeds  on  young 
Gallinacese,  which  it  boldly  carries  off  from  the  very  midst  of  the 
poultry- yards  ;  the  Turkey  especially  is  a  particular  favourite 
with  it.  When  other  food  fails,  it  feeds  on  dead  fish  found  on  the 
river -banks.  If  caught  when  young  it  is  easily  tamed,  but  as  it 
gets  mature  its  bloodthirsty  instincts  become  so  powerful  that 
it  ultimately  proves  a  most  expensive  pet. 

The  SHORT-EARED  OWL  (Fig.  275)  is  about  a  foot  in  height. 
The  horns  on  this  species'  head  are  shorter  than  those  of  the 
Great  Owl  in  proportion  to  the  birds'  size.  Its  wings  are  thirty- 
nine  inches  across ;  in  its  plumage  russet  predominates,  shaded 
with  grey  and  brown.  It  has  a  blackish  bill  and  claws,  and 
beautiful  yellow  eyes.  It  inhabits  hollows  in  rocks  or  dead  trees, 
and  old  ruined  houses,  and  sometimes  instals  itself  in  nests  left 
vacant  by  Magpies,  Ravens,  and  Buzzards.  It  is  much  less  wild 
than  the  Great  Owl,  and  is  frequently  in  the  habit  of  prowling 
round  dwelling-houses. 

This  Owl  being  very  fond  of  mice,  which  form  its  principal 
food,  all  that  is  requisite  to  attract  it  to  a  snare  is  to  imitate  the 
cry  of  these  little  animals.  It  also  feeds  on  moles,  and,  in  cases 
of  emergency,  even  on  frogs,  toads,  leverets,  young  rabbits,  and 
insects.  This  bird  displays  much  courage  in  the  defence  of  its 
young  when  it  thinks  them  in  danger,  and  does  not  then  fear  even 
to  attack  man.  Its  cry  consists  of  a  kind  of  low  moaning  clow, 
cloud,  which  it  frequently  utters  during  the  night.  It  is  easily 
tamed  if  taken  young ;  but  if  old  when  caught,  it  persistently 
refuses  food. 

p'p  2 


580 


EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 


The  Short-eared  Owl  is  more  sociable  than  most  nocturnal  birds 
of  prey,  and  is  often  met  with  in  flocks  of  seven  or  eight.  Its 
habitat  is  the  North  of  Europe,  quitting  it  in  the  autumn  to 
winter  in  warmer  regions :  it  regularly  visits  France  in  October 
and  November.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  thickets  close  to 
marshes  and  rivers,  where  it  catches  frogs,  and  even  fish.  In 


Fig.  275. — Short-eared  Owl  (Strix  brachyotus,Yai-rell). 

the  North,  especially  in  Iceland,  it  builds  its  nest  in  the  ground, 
sometimes  occupying  burrows  made  by  rabbits.  "We  shall  see 
further  on  that  this  singularity  is  shared  by  one  of  the  American 
Owls. 

A  species  very  similar  to  the  last  described  is  found  in  Senegal ; 
but  the  head,  tarsi,  and  lower  part  of  the  body  are  white  ;  its 
height  is  ten  inches. 


THE  SCOPS-EAEED  OWL. 


581 


Lastly,  the  Ketupu  is  a  native  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  It  often  frequents  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  feeds 
principally  upon  crabs  and  fish.  The  name  it  bears  is  that  which 
has  been  given  to  it  by  the  natives. 

The  SCOPS-EARED  OWL  (Scops),  Fig.  276,  is  remarkable  for  its 
diminutive  size,  which  does  not  exceed  that  of  a  Thrush,  and  for 
its  horns,  which  are  perfectly  rudimentary  and  formed  of  a  single 


Fig.  276. — Tiie  Scops-eared  Owl  (Stru  bubonmct^  Liun.j. 

feather.  Its  plumage,  which  is  beautifully  shaded  with  russet, 
grey,  and  black,  is  much  more  pleasing  than  that  of  the  preceding 
species. 

These  Owls  are  more  sociable  than  larger  ones,  and  assemble 
in  flocks  in  autumn  and  spring  to  migrate  into  warmer  climates ; 
they  depart  after  the  Swallows,  and  get  to  their  destination 
about  the  same  time.  They  are  of  great  service  to  the  agri- 
culturist in  destroying  field-mice.  "  At  times  when  this  kind 
of  scourge  was  prevalent,"  says  Buffon,  "Small  Horned  Owls 
have  been  known  to  arrive  in  numbers,  and  wage  such  a  suc- 
cessful warfare  against  the  field-mice,  that  in  a  few  days  the 
ground  was  cleared  of  them." 


582  EAPTORES,  OR  BIEDS  OF  PREY. 

Dale,  an  English  author,  mentions  another  example  of  the 
utility  of  the  Scops.  In.  1580  such  a  large  quantity  of  mice 
appeared  in  the  plains  near  South  Minster  that  all  the  plants 
were  gnawed  off  by  the  roots.  Soon  after,  a  number  of  Small 
Horned  Owls  came  in  flocks,  and  destroyed  the  mice. 

When  pressed  by  hunger,  the  Scops  is  not  above  eating  fish. 
It  may  then  be  seen  hovering  over  ponds  and  rivers,  and  seizing 
fish  upon  the  surface  with  remarkable  dexterity.  Bats  and  large 
insects  also  are  its  prey. 

It  is  difficult  to  kill  or  catch  the  Scops,  although  they  travel  in 
numerous  companies  ;  for  they  do  not  begin  their  journey  until 
the  evening,  a  short  time  before  night  closes  in,  and  settle  down 
in  the  woods  during  the  day.  If  they  meet  with  a  place 
favourable  for  their  subsistence,  such  as  a  plain  intersected  by 
marshes  and  small  woods,  they  remain  there  for  two  or  three  days. 
In  the  evening  they  have  a  strange  habit  of  following  people 
passing  through  their  haunts.  Sometimes  they  precede  them, 
hopping  from  tree  to  tree,  and  uttering  low,  plaintive  cries, 
frequently  fluttering  round  almost  sufficiently  close  to  touch 
them.  The  Scops  is  easily  tamed,  and  becomes  very  familiar ; 
it  is,  consequently,  in  much  request  in  Savoy  for  the  purpose  of 
bird-catching.  It  perfectly  recognises  the  voice  of  whoever  feeds 
it,  and,  although  at  liberty,  will  not  abandon  the  house  of  its 
master.  But  when  the  season  of  migration  arrives  it  would  be  of  no 
use  to  attempt  to  detain  it ;  kindness  and  caresses  are  all  in  vain. 
Unless  the  precaution  of  shutting  it  up  be  taken,  it  rejoins  its 
companions,  and  accompanies  them,  perhaps,  to  Africa  or  Asia. 

There  is  a  variety  of  this  bird,  named  Scops  asio,  which  is  found 
in  North  America,  on  the  shores  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  It  is 
very  gentle,  and  allows  itself  to  be  caressed  when  taken,  without 
attempting  to  bite  or  scratch.  Audubon  relates  that  he  carried 
one  of  these  birds  from  JSTew  York  to  Philadelphia  ;  he  kept  it  in 
his  pocket  during  the  whole  journey,  accustomed  it  to  eat  out  of 
his  hand,  and  the  bird  did  not  attempt  to  escape. 

Several  other  species  of  Scops  are  scattered  over  the  two  con- 
tinents. The  most  interesting  is  the  exotic  species  called  Choliba, 
which  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay  rear  in  their  dwell- 
ings to  destrov  rats  and  mice. 


SPABBOW  OWL?.  583 


HORNLESS  OWLS. 

The  family  of  Hornless  Owls  fs  distinguished  from  the  Horned 
group  by  the  absence  of  projecting  feathers  on  their  heads.  They 
comprehend  several  species,  the  principal  of  which  are  Sparrow 
Owls  (Strix  passerina,  Aud.),  Burrowing  Owls  (Athene  cunicu- 
laria),  Barn  or  Screech  Owls  (Strix  jlammea),  Hawk  Owls  (Surnia 
funerea),  Ural  Owls  (Surnia  uralensis),  and  Snow  Owls  (Surnia 
nictea). 

SPARROW  OWLS  are  of  small  size  ;  their  facial  disk  is  incomplete ; 
the  tarsi  are  elongated ;  the  claws  bare  or  slightly  hairy ;  their 
tails  short  and  square.  There  are  numerous  species,  of  which  we 
shall  only  notice  the  principal. 

The  Common  Sparrow  Owl,  which  is  very  numerous  in  France, 
and,  in  fact,  through  the  whole  of  Europe,  is  about  the  size  of  a 
Thrush.  It  inhabits  old  ruins  and  quarries,  but  never  lives  in 
the  hollows  of  trees ;  therefore  it  rarely  makes  its  abode  in  the 
Woods.  Its  nature  is  much  less  nocturnal  than  that  of  its  con- 
geners, and  it  is  often  seen  pursuing  small  birds  in  broad  day- 
light, though  probably  with  but  little  success.  Its  general  food 
consists  of  mice,  which  it  tears  in  pieces  before  eating,  as  it  is 
unable  to  swallow  them  whole.  It  also  very  skilfully  plucks 
the  feathers  from  birds  which  become  its  victims.  In  winter, 
when  the  snow  is  on  the  ground,  it  devours  the  filth  deposited 
in  the  farm- yards.  Like  the  Scops,  it  delights  in  following 
persons  who  pass  its  retreat,  especially  at  the  break  of  dawn. 
When  flying  it  utters  a  cry,  poopoo,  poopoo  !  which  it  substitutes, 
when  perched,  for  a  sound  very  like  the  voice  of  a  young  French- 
man saying  aime,  heme,  esme  !  Buffon  relates  a  curious  anecdote  on 
this  subject : — "  I  was  sleeping  in  an  old  tower  of  the  Chateau  of 
Montbard,  when  a  little  before  daybreak,  at  three  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  a  Sparrow  Owl  came  and  perched  on  the  window-seat  of 
my  chamber,  and  woke  me  by  its  cry  of  kerne,  edme.  As  I  listened 
to  this  voice,  which  seemed  to  me  all  the  more  singular  as  it  was 
so  near,  I  heard  one  of  my  servants,  who  was  sleeping  in  a  room 
above,  open  his  window,  and,  deceived  by  the  well-articulated 
sound  of  edme,  answer  the  bird:  'Who  is  down  there?  My 


584  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

name  is  not  Edme,  but  Peter/  The  servant  actually  believed 
that  it  was  a  man  calling,  so  much  did  the  voice  of  the  Owl 
resemble  that  of  a  human  being,  and  so  distinctly  did  it  articulate 
the  word." 

The  bird-catchers  of  Tessin  employ  the  Sparrow  Owl  for 
enticing  birds  into  .their  nests.  If  taken  when  very  young  it  is 
easily  tamed,  and  shows  itself  sensible  of  attention.  M.  Bailly 
possessed  one  which  exhibited  much  satisfaction  when  rubbed  on 
the  breast,  back,  or  head.  It  would  remain  perfectly  immovable, 
sometimes  on  its  chest,  and  sometimes  on  its  back,  showing  in 
every  way  the  pleasure  it  felt. 

In  Northern  Italy  this  bird  is  reared  in  captivity;  it  feeds 
on  mice,  and  even  eats  fruit  and  polenta.  M.  Gerard  relates 
that  he  reared  a  Sparrow  Owl,  which  became  so  tame  that  it 
willingly  allowed  itself  to  be  caressed  at  any  moment  of  the  day. 
It  destroyed  a  great  many  insects,  and  ate  everything  that  was 
given  it,  but  showed  such  a  very  decided  taste  for  raw  meat 
that  it  sometimes,  without  letting  go  its  hold,  hung  suspended  to  a 
morsel  of  intestine  for  more  than  ten  minutes.  It  was  on  the  best 
of  terms  with  the  cat  of  the  house ;  and  they  were  often  found 
lying  close  together  in  the  same  basket.  The  dog  was  never 
able  to  gain  the  bird's  affections  ;  and  a  Raven,  which  lived  in  the 
house  by  the  same  right  as  the  Owl,  was  cordially  hated  by  it. 
It  showed  much  irritation  at  the  sight  of  other  birds,  even  if 
they  were  only  stuffed  ones ;  and  when  able  to  obtain  possession 
of  them,  carried  them  into  a  corner  and  plucked  off  their  feathers 
at  leisure.  It  also  delighted  in  rolling  in  the  dust. 

A  more  diminutive  species  still,  the  Small  Sparrow  Owl, 
inhabits  the  northern  part  of  the  two  continents,  and  sometimes 
ventures  as  far  south  as  Germany.  Its  plumage,  which  is 
ash- coloured  above,  below  the  chest  is  dazzling  white,  marked 
with  black  spots.  It  has  a  white  stripe  round  the  front  of  its 
neck. 

The  Pampas  Sparrow  Owl  is  found  in  South  America,  and  is  no 
bigger  than  a  Thrush.  This  bird,  though  so  small,  has  strongly- 
developed  bloodthirsty  instincts  ;  for  it  slips  under  the  wings  of 
poultry,  and  kills  them  by  tearing  open  their  sides. 

Buffon  classes  with  this  species  a  variety  which  inhabits  the 


BAEN  OWLS.  585 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  is  endowed  with,  magnificent  plumage, 
red  and  black  partly  mixed  with  grey.  The  colonists  tame  it, 
and  use  it  to  keep  their  houses  clear  of  mice. 

The  BURROWING  OWL  derives  its  name  from  the  place  in  which 
it  makes  its  nest.  This  bird  is  about  the  size  of  a  Pigeon,  and 
frequents  the  immense  plains,  or  pampas,  of  South  America,  and 
the  prairies  of  North  America.  The  burrows,  however,  it  does 
not  dig  itself,  but  simply  takes  possession  of  those  belonging  to 
other  animals,  after  having  driven  them  away  by  its  disgusting 
odour.  This  mode  of  conquering  a  territory,  although  of  a 
peaceful  character,  is,  to  say  the  least  of  it,  singular. 

Burrowing  Owls  do  not  confine  themselves  to  going  out  in  the 
evening  and  morning.  They  love  the  light  of  day,  and  willingly 
seek  their  food  even  when  the  sun  is  vertical.  It  is  a  curious  fact 
that  this  bird  lives  in  association  with  beings  with  which  it  has  no 
natural  tie,  such  as  the  prairie  dog,  a  sort  of  marmot  peculiar 
to  the  New  World.  Captain  Francis  Head,  an  English  traveller, 
who  one  day  came  across  a  flock  of  these  creatures  thus  living 
together,  depicts  their  attitude  as  follows  : — 

"  Towards  the  evening  the  prairie  dogs  keep  outside  their  bur- 
rows, with  a  serious  look  on  their  faces,  like  grave  and  reflective 
philosophers  or  moralists.  During  the  day  the  entrance  to  the 
subterranean  burrow  is  guarded  by  two  Owls,  which  never  quit 
their  post.  While  the  travellers  were  galloping  over  the  plain  the 
Owls  continued  their  duty  as  sentries,  looking  them  full  in  the 
face,  and  one  after  the  other  shaking  their  venerable  heads  in 
a  way  which  was  most  ludicrous  on  account  of  its  solemnity. 
When  the  horsemen  came  near  them  the  two  sentinels  lost 
much  of  their  dignified  look,  and  darted  hurriedly  into  the 
burrows." 

This  Owl  feeds  on  rats,  reptiles,  and  insects.  It  is  gentle,  and 
may  be  easily  tamed,  and  is  sometimes  kept  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  vermin. 

The  birds  which  are  comprised  in  the  genus  of  BARN  or  SCREECH 
OWLS  have  a  complete  facial  disk,  and  short  tarsi  feathered  down  to 
the  claws.  They  are  as  large,  and  even  larger  than  the  Short- 
eared  Owl. 

The  first  of  this   group  is  the  Tawny  Owl,  or  Howlet,  com- 


586  RAPTORES,  OR  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

monly  called  the  Wood  Owl.  One  of  its  names  is  derived 
from  its  cry,  koo-oo-oo !  which  resembles  the  howling  of  a 
wolf,  and  caused  the  Romans  to  call  it  Ulula,  from  ululare,  to 
howl. 

The  Tawny  Owl  has  a  large  head,  and  is  about  fourteen  inches 
in  height.  It  inhabits  the  woods  during  the  summer,  and  conceals 
itself  in  the  thickest  bushes  or  the  old  trunks  of  trees.  It  remains 
hidden  all  day,  only  going  out  in  the  morning  arid  evening 
to  hunt  small  birds  and  field-mice,  its  favourite  prey.  In  the 
winter  it  approaches  human  habitations,  and  even  ventures  into 
barns  to  catch  rats  and  mice ;  but  it  retires  to  its  hiding-place  as 
soon  as  day  begins  to  dawn. 

At  the  beginning  of  autumn,  the  education  of  its  young 
ones  being  completed,  this  bird  takes  up  its  abode  in  damp 
places,  where  it  can  catch  frogs  and  reptiles,  to  which  it  is 
very  partial.  During  that  season  Woodcock  shooters  often  flush 
them. 

Like  many  individuals  of  the  same  family,  the  Barn  Owl  will 
lay  its  eggs  in  strange  nests,  such  as  those  of  Havens,  Magpies,  and 
Buzzards,  or  even  in  a  dovecot.  The  young  ones  are  very  voracious. 
Before  they  are  strong  enough  to  stand  upon  their  feet  they  will 
support  themselves  on  their  stomachs,  and,  holding  their  prey  in 
their  claws,  tear  it  to  pieces  with  their  bills ;  when  they  become 
stronger,  they  stand  on  one  leg,  and  use  the  other  to  convey  food 
to  their  mouths. 

This  Owl  has  a  gentle  disposition,  and  is  easily  tamed  ;  it  knows 
its  master  perfectly  well,  and  calls  to  him  for  food  by  uttering 
low  cries.  It  is  found  scattered  all  over  Europe,  and  frequently 
in  Scotland. 

As  stormy  weather  has  a  great  effect  on  animals'  calling,  and 
this  dark  variety  is  more  frequently  found  in  northern  and  stormy 
regions  than  the  lighter-coloured,  many  authorities  erroneously 
consider  the  Screech  and  Barn  Owls  different  birds. 

The  Common  Barn  Owl  is  found  over  a  great  portion  of  Europe, 
but  in  France  it  is  rare.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  bird; 
the  one  best  known  in  England  has  the  following  characteristics  : 
— Its  plumage  is  agreeably  variegated  with  yellow,  white,  grey, 
and  brown,  and  is  more  pleasing  than  that  of  any  of  the  other 


BARN  OWLS. 


587 


Fig.  277.— Barn  Owl  (Sirix /lammea,  Yarrell). 


Nocturnals.  The  eggs,  which  are  elliptical,  are  generally  five  in 
number,  sometimes  six  or  seven,  and  are  deposited  in  holes  in 
walls,  or  hollow  places  in  rocks 
and  old  trees  ;  but  the  bird  does 
not  take  the  trouble  to  line  these 
holes  with  grass  or  leaves.  It 
is  but  seldom  it  takes  posses- 
sion of  the  nests  of  other  birds, 
although  stories  are  told  of  its 
driving  away  the  Martins  from 
their  retreats,  and  installing  itself 
therein,  having  first  considerately 
devoured  the  young. 

Children,  women,  and  even 
men  who  are  silly  enough  to 
believe  in  ghosts  and  sorcerers, 
look  upon  the  Barn  Owl  as  a  bird 
of  ill  omen,  and  as  a  messenger 
of  death.  All  these  prejudices  are 
really  very  foolish,  for  few  birds  are  of  more  service.  They  destroy 
a  vast  quantity  of  vermin  which  are  injurious  to  agriculture,  and 
therefore  have  a  good  claim  to  protection.  When  the  Owl  has  young 
ones  to  feed,  rats  and  mice  are  exterminated  without  either  truce 
or  mercy.  As  rapidly  as  they  can  be  caught  they  are  carried 
to  the  nest ;  and  each  of  the  pellets  of  bone  and  hair  which  are 
thrown  up  from  its  stomach  is  composed  of  at  least  six  or  seven 
skeletons.  Dr.  Franklin  collected,  in  the  space  of  sixteen  months, 
a  whole  bushel  measure  of  these  pellets,  all  proceeding  from  a 
couple  of  Barn  Owls. 

Farmers  are  in  error  when  they  accuse  the  Barn  Owl  of  destroy- 
ing their  Pigeons'  eggs.  The  real  culprits  are  the  rats.  When  an 
Owl  makes  its  appearance  in  the  vicinity  of  a  dovecot,  the  proper 
course  of  conduct  is  to  give  it  a  kind  reception  and  to  protect  it, 
for  its  only  object  in  coming  is  to  obtain  shelter  for  a  time,  and, 
during  its  stay,  to  destroy  rats  or  mice,  the  real  scourges  of  the 
pigeon-house. 

When  the  Barn  Owl  finds  a  deficiency  of  food  it  has  re- 
course to  fishing.  It  may  then  be  seen  diving  perpendicularly 


588 


EAPTOEES,  OE  BIKDS  OF  PEEY. 


on  to   the  water   to   capture  fish   which  are  floating  upon  the 
surface. 

The  Chinese  and  Tartars  pay  special  reverence  to  the  Owl,  in 
memory  of  a  fact  which  well  deserves  to  be  recorded.  Gengis 
Khan,  the  founder  of  their  empire,  having  been  put  to  flight 
by  his  enemies,  was  one  day  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  a  wood, 
and  an  Owl  which  came  and  perched  in  the  thicket  in  which  he 
had  hidden  himself  was  the  sole  cause  of  his  escaping  the  pursuit 
of  his  foes  ;  for  those  who  were  searching  for  him  very  naturally 
omitted  to  explore  the  bushes  in  which  he  was  concealed,  thinking 
that  it  was  impossible  that  a  covert  should  at  the  same  time  shelter 
both  an  Owl  and  a  man.  Thus,  thanks  to  the  intervention  of  the 


Fig.  278. — The  Canada  or  Hawk  Owl  (Surnia  funerea,  Yarrell). 

bird,  Gengis  Khan  was  saved  from  his  foes.  In  memory  of  this 
event  the  Chinese  were  in  the  habit  of  wearing  on  their  heads  an 
Owl's  feather.  Certain  tribes  of  the  Calmucs  have  an  idol  repre- 
senting an  Owl. 

The  CANADA  OWL  (Fig.  278)  is  common   in  North  America, 


THE  WHITE  OWL.  589 

and  especially  in  Canada.  It  appears  casually  in  the  North  of 
Europe,  in  Sweden  and  Norway.  Its  plumage  is  of  a  greyish- 
brown  colour.  It  feeds  on  hares,  rabbits,  rats,  mice,  reptiles,  and 
birds  ;  it  is  about  fifteen  inches  high.  Audubon  often  had  an 
opportunity  of  examining  it. 

"  Its  cry/'  says  he,  "  is  a  waak,  waahha,  which  one  is  tempted 
to  compare  with  the  affected  laugh  of  a  votary  of  fashion.  Often 
in  my  distant  excursions,  when  encamped  under  the  trees,  and 
roasting  a  slice  of  venison  or  a  squirrel  by  means  of  a  wooden  spit, 
I  have  been  greeted  with  the  laughter  of  this  nocturnal  disturber. 
It  stopped  at  a  few  paces  from  me,  exposing  its  whole  body  to  the 
gleam  of  my  fire,  and  looking  at  me  in  such  an  odd  way,  that 
had  I  not  feared  to  make  a  fool  of  myself  in  my  own  eyes,  I 
should  have  politely  invited  him  to  come  and  partake  of  my 
supper.  This  bird  visits  Louisiana,  and  is  met  with  in  all  the 
most  isolated  woods  even  in  open  day.  If  it  appears  likely  to 
rain,  it  laughs  louder  than  ever ;  its  waak,  waaMa,  penetrates 
into  the  most  remote  recesses  of  the  woods,  and  its  comrades 
answer  it  in  strange  and  discordant  tones  :  one  might  almost  think 
that  the  Owl  nation  was  celebrating  some  extraordinary  fete" 

Audubon  adds  that  when  you  approach  one  of  these  birds 
it  thoroughly  scrutinises  you,  assuming  at  the  same  time  the 
most  grotesque  attitudes.  If  any  one  fires  at  it  and  misses, 
it  flies  away,  but  stops  at  a  little  distance  and  utters  its  mocking 
cry. 

The  name  HAWK  OWLS  has  been  given  to  this  genus,  as  it  serves 
as  a  transition  from  the  Nocturnal  to  the  Diurnal  birds  of  prey.  In 
fact,  although,  by  their  general  shape  and  physical  conformation, 
they  evidently  belong  to  the  former,  they  are  also  connected  with 
the  latter  by  their  habits  and  mode  of  hunting,  which  are  very  like 
those  of  the  Sparrow-hawk ;  hence  their  name.  They  are  easily 
recognised  by  their  long  and  tapering  tail,  and  by  their  free  and 
bold  gait.  They  form  a  very  characteristic  group,  and  the  species, 
which  are  four  in  number,  present  but  little  diversity. 

The  WHITE  OWL  (Surnia  nictea),  the  Strix  nictea  of  Foster, 
can  be  tamed  ;  but  it  must  not  be  closely  confined.  It  requires 
both  air  and  space  to  move  about  at  will.  Under  these  condi- 
tions it  constitutes  a  useful  auxiliary  to  the  farmer,  and  will 


590  R1PTORE3,  OR  1URDS  OF  PEEY. 

advantageously  take  the  place  of  several  cats.     But  if  it  is  kept 
in  a  cage  it  refuses  food,  and  dies  after  a  few  days'  captivity. 

The  White  Owl  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
North  America.  There  are  two  varieties  of  it :  one  in  Java,  the 
Calong  Owl ;  the  other  in  Mexico  and  the  Antilles.  These  two 
species  differ  but  little  from  the  Common  White  Owl,  and  are 
characterised  by  nearly  the  same  habits. 

The  CAPARACOCH  OWL,  called  by  BufFon  the  Great  Canadian 
Sparrow  Owl,  measures  about  fifteen  inches.  In  summer  it 
feeds  upon  small  rodents  and  insects  ;  in  winter,  on  Ptarmigan, 
which  it  accompanies  in  their  migrations  from  the  South  to  the 
North.  It  will  sometimes  pounce  down  on  the  game  which  is 
killed  by  the  sportsman,  and,  if  care  is  not  taken,  will  carry 
it  off.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  regions,  especially  those  of 
America.  Sometimes  it  penetrates  as  far  as  Germany,  but  rarely 
makes  its  appearance  in  France. 

The  HARFANG  OWL,  improperly  called  by  some  naturalists  the 
King  of  the  Owls,  attains  to  about  twenty-two  inches  in  height ; 
that  is,  to  nearly  the  size  of  the  Great  Horned  Owl.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Lapland  or  Ash-coloured  Owl,  which  measures 
two  feet,  this  is  the  largest  among  the  Owls.  Its  plumage  is  a 
brilliant  white,  with  some  black  spots  on  the  head.  This  colour 
is  well  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  places  in  which  the  Har- 
fang  lives.  This  bird  inhabits  the  most  desolate  solitudes  to  the 
north  of  America  :  Newfoundland,  Hudson's  Bay,  and  Greenland. 
It  is  also  found  in  Iceland  and  the  neighbouring  islands,  but 
is  only  accidentally  seen  in  England  and  France.  Thanks  to 
its  colour,  which  harmonises  so  perfectly  with  all  around,  it  is 
enabled  to  traverse  almost  unseen  the  immense  deserts  of  snow, 
and  thus  has  great  facilities  for  surprising  its  prey,  which  consists 
of  Hazel  Hens,  Ptarmigan,  Grouse,  Hares,  and  Rabbits.  Owing 
to  its  abundant  plumage  and  thick  down,  it  is  able  to  brave  the 
inclemency  of  a  climate  that  would  be  fatal  to  any  creature  less 
amply  protected. 

The  fact  is  attested  by  the  statement  of  Captain  Parry,  of  Arctic- 
region  notoriety,  that  this  bird  frequently  dies  of  starvation. 
Sometimes  it  shows  so  much  audacity  and  greediness  that  it  is 
impossible  to  entertain  any  doubt  on  the  subject  of  its  hunger, 


FALCONS.  591 

as  it  will  pounce  on  tlie  game  shot  by  the  sportsman,  totally 
disregarding  human  presence. 

The  LAPLAND  and  the  URAL  OWLS  have  the  same  habits  as  the 
Harfang,  only  their  geographical  distribution  is  less  extended. 
Mr.  Gould  regards  the  latter  as  one  of  the  rarest  European  Owls. 
As  their  names  indicate,  they  are  peculiar  to  certain  countries. 
Neither  have  they  the  dazzling  whiteness  of  the  Harfang  Owl ; 
and  this  is  the  characteristic  which  specially  distinguishes  them 
from  the  latter. 

We  may  class  in  the  same  genus  two  exotic  species  discovered 
by  Levaillant.  These  are  the  Choucou,  which  is  a  native  of  Africa, 
and  the  Huhul  Owl  of  Guiana,  which  hunts  its  prey  in  open 
day. 

DIURNAL  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

All  that  we  previously  remarked,  when  commencing  the  con- 
sideration of  this  order,  as  to  the  general  characteristics  which 
distinguish  birds  of  prey,  applies  more  particularly  to  the  diurnal 
portion  of  them.  We  shall  not  repeat  here  what  we  have  already 
stated,  but  only  add  a  few  words,  in  order  the  better  to  specify  this 
division  of  the  order. 

The  diurnal  birds  of  prey  have  their  eyes  placed  at  the  sides 
of  the  head,  and  the  toes  completely  bare.  They  vary  in  size 
from  that  of  the  Sparrow-hawk,  the  spread  of  whose  wings  is 
scarcely  twelve  inches,  to  the  Condor,  which  stretches  its  pinions 
over  a  space  of  four  or  five  yards.  They  lay  their  eggs,  which 
are  generally  of  an  oval  shape,  in  rude  nests  called  "  aeries/' 

The  Diurnal  section  of  the  Rapacious  order  is  divided  into  three 
families :  the  Falcons  (Falconidce),  the  Vultures  ( Vulturidce),  and 
the  Serpent- eaters  (Gypogeranus). 


FALCONS. 

The  Falcon  tribe  have  a  very  strong  and  comparatively  short 
beak,  which  i&  generally  curved  from  the  base,  with  denticulated 
or  scalloped  edges  ;  the  head  and  neck  covered  with  feathers ;  the 


592  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

talons  very  powerful,  and  furnished  with  retractile  nails — not, 
indeed,  in  the  same  manner  as  cats,  which  have  the  power  of 
withdrawing  or  sheathing  theirs  within  the  integuments,  but  by  a 
conformation  which  gives  the  bird  of  prey  the  power  of  elevating 
its  claws  at  pleasure. 

These  are  the  birds  of  prey  par  excellence.  They  feed  for  the 
most  part  on  living  animals;  there  are,  however,  some  which,  when 
other  means  of  sustenance  fail,  devour  putrefied  flesh.  Their  flight 
is  very  rapid,  and  they  ascend  to  immense  altitudes  in  the  sky. 
They  are  seldom  to  be  seen  on  the  ground ;  if  they  settle  there  it 
is  but  to  seize  their  prey,  which  accomplished,  they  without  delay 
take  wing  to  their  aerie.  They  lay,  on  an  average,  three  or 
four  eggs.  Their  plumage  alters  considerably  during  their  early 
years ;  to  such  an  extent,  indeed,  does  this  occur,  that  the  young 
and  the  adult  birds  have  often  been  taken  for  two  distinct  species. 
This  fact  has  not  a  little  contributed  to  confusing  students  of  orni- 
thology. 

This  family  is  a  very  numerous  one,  comprising  no  less  than 
nine  genera ;  namely,  Eagles,  Sea  Eagles,  Harpy  Eagles,  Caracara 
Eagles,  Hawks,  Goshawks,  Kites,  Harriers,  and  Buzzards. 

The  EAGLE  genus  is  characterised  as  follows : — The  bill  scal- 
loped, but  not  toothed,  and  presenting  a  straight  portion  at 
the  base ;  the  nostrils  elliptical  and  transverse ;  the  tarsi  short, 
and  feathered  down  to  the  toes  ;  the  wings  long ;  and  the  tail 
rounded. 

Buflbn  has  sketched  a  portrait  of  the  Eagle,  but  his  picture  is  by 
no  means  a  model  of  accuracy  : — 

"  The  Eagles,"  he  says,  "  both  physically  and  morally,  present 
several  points  of  harmony  with  the  Lion.  In  the  first  place,  in 
strength,  and  consequently  in  an  empire  over  other  birds,  as 
the  Lion  over  beasts.  In  magnanimity ;  for  he,  too,  disdains 
small  creatures,  and  despises  their  insults.  The  Eagle  will  for  a 
long  time  bear  with  the  troublesome  cries  of  the  Grow  and  the 
Magpie  ere  he  makes  up  his  mind  to  punish  them  with  death. 
Added  to  this,  he  covets  no  good  things  that  he  has  not  conquered 
for  himself,  and  no  other  prey  than  that  of  his  own  catching.  In 
temperance  ;  for  he  scarcely  ever  eats  the  whole  of  his  victim,  and, 
like  the  Lion,  leaves  the  bits  and  fragments  for  other  creatures. 


EAGLES.  593 

However  great  may  be  his  Lunger,  he  will  never  feed  upon  dead 
carcasses.  Again,  like  the  Lion,  he  lives  a  solitary  life,  inhabiting 
a  desert,  into  which  he  allows  no  other  bird  to  enter,  and  in  which 
he  himself  must  be  the  sole  hunter ;  for  two  pairs  of  Eagles  in  the 
same  mountain  district  are,  perhaps,  a  rarer  sight  than  two 
families  of  Lions  in  the  same  part  of  a  forest.  They  keep  at  a 
sufficient  distance  from  one  another,  so  that  the  space  allotted 
to  them  should  furnish  each  an  ample  subsistence  ;  and  the  extent 
of  their  demesne  is  regulated  by  its  productiveness.  The  Eagle 
has  a  flashing  eye  like  the  Lion,  and  is  nearly  of  the  same  colour ; 
has  claws  of  a  similar  shape,  a  breath  equally  rank,  and  a  cry 
equally  frightful.  Both  seem  as  if  they  were  made  for  combat 
and  the  pursuit  of  prey ;  both  are  alike  inimical  to  companionship, 
alike  ferocious,  alike  proud,  and  difficult  to  tame." 

Buffoii  has  much  overrated  the  reputation  'of  the  Eagle  ;  it  will 
be  well  to  reduce  it  to  somewhat  more  just  proportions.  Agreeing 
with  the  immortal  naturalist,  we  admit  that  the  Eagle  is  en- 
dowed with  no  common  amount  of  strength.  With  regard  to  its 
magnanimity,  we  must  be  allowed  to  entertain  a  doubt.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  Eagle  always  attacks  animals  which  are  unable 
to  resist  it ;  if  [ it  disdains  small  birds,  it  is  because  they  can 
easily  evade  its  pursuit,  and  after  all,  there  would  be  but  little 
profit  gained  if  they  were  caught.  As  to  its  moderation,  it  is 
easily  proved  to  have  no  existence  save  in  the  imagination  of 
the  distinguished  naturalist.  On  the  contrary,  the  Eagle  is 
voracious  ;  it  never  leaves  its  prey  until  it  is  completely  surfeited, 
and  then  only  because  it  is  unable  to  carry  away  the  remainder 
to  its  aerie.  So  far  from  despising  dead  carcasses,  it  will  readily 
feed  upon  them,  even  when  it  is  not  compelled  by  need,  for  it 
will  gorge  itself  on  carrion  to  such  an  extent  that  it  frequently 
becomes  incapable  of  avoiding  its  enemies.  Its  honesty,  too,  is 
a  fact  not  better  established,  for  the  Fish  Eagle  pursues  birds 
that  are  weaker  than  itself,  and,  in  defiance  of  all  justice,  takes 
from  them  the  booty  which  they  have  acquired  through  labour. 

By  a  kind  of  rhetorical  metaphor  the  Eagle  has  been  proclaimed 
"  the  king  of  birds."  If  the  possession  of  strength,  and  the  abuse 
which  is  made  of  it,  constitute  the  attributes  of  royalty,  the 
Eagle  has  an  unquestionable  right  to  the  title  But  if  with  the 

QQ 


594  BAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 


kingly  rank  we  connect  the  ideas  of  courage  and  nobility,  it  would 
never  do  to  place  the  crown  on  the  Eagle's  head. 

The  ancients  were  inspired  with  a  juster  sentiment  in  making 
the  Eagle  the  symbol  of  victory.  The  Assyrians,  the  Persians, 
and  the  Romans  placed  an  Eagle  with  outspread  wings  on  the  top 
of  their  standards ;  and  even  in  modern  times  we  find  a  repre- 
sentation of  this  bird  filling  the  same  emblematic  post  in  the 
armies  of  several  European  nations.  Some,  as  Austria,  instead 
of  one  Eagle,  adopt  two  as  their  allusive  emblazonry. 

In  consequence  of  the  Eagle  mounting  up  to  such  prodigious 
heights  the  ancients  looked  upon  it  as  the  bird  of  Jupiter  and  the 
messenger  of  the  gods.  When  Jove,  after  the  withdrawal  of 
Hebe,  came  down  to  earth  to  seek  for  another  cup-bearer,  he 
changed  himself  into  an  Eagle,  and  it  was  under  this  shape  he 
carried  off  Ganymede. 

But  we  must  leave  mythology  and  symbols,  and  turn  our  atten- 
tion to  a  matter-of-fact  description  of  the  great  bird  of  prey. 

In  the  Eagle  the  sense  of  vision  is  developed  to  its  very  highest 
excellence.  Contemplate  him  hovering  majestically  among  the 
clouds,  and  you  will  be  struck  with  admiration.  By  an  impercep- 
tible motion  of  his  wings  he  maintains  this  prodigious  height 
without  fatigue.  Perceiving  a  Hazel  Hen  on  the  heath  below,  he 
folds  his  wings,  and  in  a  few  seconds  drops  down  to  within  a 
short  distance  of  the  ground ;  then,  with  his  legs  stiffened,  he 
swoops  upon  his  prey,  seizes  his  victim,  and  carries  it  away  to 
some  adjacent  mountain. 

The  great  strength  of  the  muscles  which  work  the  wing  of  this 
bird  (Fig.  279)  will  explain  the  power  and  long  duration  of  his 
flight. 

The  Eagle  is  endowed  with  such  an  enormous  amount  of 
muscular  force,  that  it  contends  successfully  against  the  most 
powerful  winds.  Raymond,  the  naturalist,  who  has  been  styled 
"  the  painter  of  the  Pyrenees,"  relates  that,  having  reached  the 
summit  of  Mont  Perdu,  the  loftiest  peak  of  that  range,  he  perceived 
an  Eagle  pass  over  him  at  surprising  speed,  although  it  was 
flying  against  a  strong  head-wind. 

If  to  the  weight  of  the  body  of  the  Eagle  we  add  that  of  the 
victim  which  it  clutches  in  its  talons  ;  if  we  consider  that  this 


EAGLES.  595 

victim  is  often  borne  by  it  to  considerable  distances,  and  that 
the  Eagle  will  thus  cross  the  chain  of  the  Alps ;  if  we  also 
reflect  that  the  prey  is  not  unfrequently  a  chamois  or  a  sheep, 
we  shall  be  enabled  to  form  some  idea  of  its  strength  and  mus- 
cular power. 

The  size  of  the  Eagle   varies  according   to   the  race,  but  all 
attain  imposing  dimensions.       The  female  of  the  Golden  Eagle 


Fig.  279.— Wing  of  an  Eagle. 

measures  three  feet  nine  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  beak  to  the 
points  of  the  feet,  and  the  spread  of  its  wings  is  nearly  ten  feet. 
In  the  Imperial  Eagle  the  spread  of  the  wings  is  only  six  feet, 
and  in  the  Small  Marine  Eagle  four  feet  four  inches. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  Eagle  can  travel  sixty- five  feet  in  a 
second,  which  would  give  a  speed  of  forty- four  miles  an  hour ;  but 
Naumann  positively  contradicts  this  assertion,  on  the  ground  that 
the  Eagle  is  incapable  of  overtaking  a  Pigeon.  It  is,  at  all  events, 
a  matter  of  certainty  that  the  flight  of  this  bird  is  very  rapid.  An 
Eagle  has  been  noticed  circling  over  a  hare  in  a  field,  and  hem- 
ming it  in,  so  that  the  victim  was  unable  to  escape  on  either  side, 
always  finding  its  enemy  in  front. 

The  Eagle  builds  its  nest  in  the  clefts  of  the  most  inaccessible 
rocks,  or  on  their  edge,  that  its  brood  may  be  safe  from  danger 
or  surprise.  This  nest  is  nothing  but  a  floor,  made  of  sticks 
placed  carelessly  side  by  side,  bound  together  with  some  pliable 
branches,  and  lined  with  leaves,  reeds,  and  heather.  However, 
its  solidity  is  sufficient  to  resist  for  years  the  decay  caused  by  time, 

QQ2 


593  RAPTOKES,  OR  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

and  to  bear  the  load  of  four  or  five  birds,  weighing  from  seventy 
to  eighty  pounds,  with  the  provisions  brought  for  their  sustenance. 
Some  Eagles'  nests  have  an  area  of  as  much  as  five  feet  square. 
The  number  of  eggs  laid  is  generally  two  or  three,  rarely  four. 
Incubation  requires  thirty  days. 

Eaglets  being  very  voracious,  the  parent  birds  are  compelled 
to  hunt  with  great  assiduity.  Nevertheless,  should  scarcity 
occur,  the  young  brood  do  not  suffer,  for  nature  has  endowed 
them  with  the  faculty  of  supporting  abstinence  for  many  days. 
This  peculiarity  they  possess  in  common  with  all  birds  of 
prey.  Buffon  mentions  an  Eagle  which,  having  been  taken  in 
a  trap,  passed  five  weeks  without  anything  to  eat,  and  did  not 
appear  enfeebled  until  the  last  eight  days.  An  English  author 
states  that  for  twenty-one  days  a  tame  Eagle  was  not  fed,  and 
that  the  bird  appeared  to  have  suffered  little  from  its  protracted 
fast. 

When  the  young  are  large  enough  to  provide  for  their  own 
wants  they  are  pitilessly  driven  from  their  paternal  home ;  they 
then  proceed  to  an  unoccupied  district,  of  which  they  take  posses- 
sion. 

The  Eagle  is,  as  we  have  before  said,  endowed  with  immense 
muscular  vigour ;  it  is,  therefore,  able  to  carry  off  prey  of  con- 
siderable size,  such  as  Geese,  Turkeys,  Cranes,  &c. ;  also  Hares, 
Kids,  and  Lambs.  In  the  mountains  in  which  Chamois  are 
abundant  they  are  the  principal  objects  of  the  Eagle's  pursuit,  and 
it  employs  various  stratagems  to  get  these  animals  into  its  power ; 
for  the  bird  will  not  venture  to  make  its  attack  in  front,  as 
the  Chamois  is  well  able  to  keep  it  at  a  distance  with  its  horns, 
provided  its  rear  is  protected. 

The  Eagle  sometimes  kills  its  prey  with  the  force  of  its  swoop, 
without  clutching  with  talons  or  beak.  Again,  it  is  stated  that  a 
blow  from  its  wing  will  deprive  a  kid  of  life  ;  it  is  not,  therefore, 
surprising  that  its  strength  enables  it  to  lift  up  young  children, 
and  carry  them  off. 

Many  for  a  long  period  have  refused  to  give  credence  to  this 
fact ;  but  the  evidence  of  persons  who  are  worthy  of  all  confidence 
will  not  allow  of  any  doubt  being  raised  on  the  subject.  We  will, 
however,  mention  a  few  instances. 


EAGLES.  .597 

In  the  Canton  of  Yaud  two  little  girls,  one  three  years  old  and 
the  other  five,  were  playing  together  in  a  meadow.  An  Eagle 
swooped  down  upon  the  eldest,  and  carried  her  off.  All  that 
immediately  after wrards  could  be  found  upon  a  most  active  search 
was  a  shoe  and  stocking  belonging  to  the  child.  Two  months 
having  elapsed,  a  shepherd  discovered  the  remains  of  the  little 
victim,  horribly  mutilated,  and  lying  upon  a  rock  half  a  league 
from  the  meadow  from  which  she  was  taken. 

In  the  Isle  of  Skye,  in  Scotland,  a  woman  left  her  child  in 
a  field.  An  Eagle  carried  off  the  little  one  in  its  talons,  and 
crossing  over  a  broad  lake,  laid  it  upon  a  rock.  Fortunately 
the  robber  was  perceived  by  some  shepherds,  who  came  up  in 
time  to  succour  the  infant. 

In  Sweden  a  babe  was  carried  away  under  somewhat  similar 
circumstances.  The  mother,  who  was  only  a  short  distance  off, 
heard  the  shrieks  of  the  poor  little  thing ;  but  it  was  impossible 
for  her  to  rescue  it.  It  was  borne  out  of  her  sight,  and  the 
wretched  woman  went  mad  with  grief. 

In  the  Canton  of  Geneva  a  boy  of  ten  years  old,  who  was 
robbing  an  Eagle's  nest,  was  seized  by  one  of  the  birds,  and 
borne  to  a  point  six  hundred  yards  from  the  spot.  He  was  rescued 
by  his  companions  without  having  suffered  further  injury  than 
some  severe  wounds  inflicted  by  the  bird's  talons. 

In  the  Feroe  Isles  an  Eagle  flew  away  with  a  child  (which  its 
mother  had  left  for  a  few  moments),  and  bore  it  off  to  its  aerie. 
Maternal  love  inspired  the  unfortunate  woman  with  such  a  degree 
of  strength  as  to  enable  her  to  reach  the  nest ;  but  alas !  to  find 
her  child  lifeless. 

Near  New  York,  in  America,  a  lad  of  seven  years  of  age  was 
attacked  by  an  Eagle.  The  boy  having  avoided  the  first  shock, 
the  Eagle  persevered  in  its  onslaught ;  but  he  waited  for  it  bravely, 
and  gave  the  bird  a  vigorous  blow  under  the  left  wing  with  a 
sickle,  which  killed  it.  When  the  stomach  of  this  Eagle  was 
opened  it  was  found  entirely  devoid  of  food.  The  bird  was,  there- 
fore, in  a  famished  state,  and  consequently  enfeebled.  Its  per- 
sistent boldness  is  thus  explained,  and  also  the  ease  with  which 
it  was  mastered. 

We  must,  however,  confess  that  cases  of  children  being  carried 


593  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

away  by  Eagles  are  rare,  for  they  generally  avoid  the  vicinity  of 
man,  feeling  unable  to  cope  with  him  successfully.  The  chief 
objects  of  their  attacks  are  newly-born  lambs,  which  they  fre- 
quently carry  off  in  spite  of  the  shouts  of  the  shepherds  and  the 
proximity  of  his  dogs.  Sometimes  they  devote  their  attention  to 
young  calves ;  they  do  not,  however,  attempt  to  carry  them  off, 
but  feed  on  them  where  slaughtered. 

A  considerable  amount  of  ingenuity  has  been  displayed  by 
some  men  in  turning  to  account  the  habit  which  Eagles  have 
of  storing  up  a  quantity  of  provisions  in  their  nests  for  the 
sustenance  of  their  young.  A  peasant  in  Ireland  kept  himself 
and  the  whole  of  his  family  for  an  entire  season  by  robbing  the 
Eaglets  in  a  neighbouring  aerie  of  the  stores  of  food  which  were 
brought  to  them  by  the  parent  birds.  In  order  to  prolong  this 
singular  means  of  livelihood,  report  says,  he  endeavoured  to  delay 
the  moment  when  the  young  ones  would  be  driven  forth,  adopting 
the  artifice  of  cutting  their  wings  to  render  it  impossible  for  them 
to  fly. 

Eagles  are  very  suspicious,  and  it  is  consequently  difficult  to  get 
•within  gunshot  of  them.  The  mountaineers  of  the  Pyrenees  suffer 
much  from  the  ravages  they  make  among  their  flocks,  and  for 
this  reason  brave  many  dangers  to  destroy  the  young  birds. 

"  This  pursuit,"  says  M.  Gerard,  "  is  carried  on  by  two  men ; 
one  of  the  hunters  is  armed  with  a  double-barrelled  carbine,  the 
other  with  a  kind  of  iron  pike  about  two  feet  long.  At  the 
first  indication  of  daybreak  the  hunters  reach  the  mountain- 
peak  where  the  Eagle  has  his  aerie,  just  at  the  time  that  the  old 
birds  are  away  seeking  food.  The  first  stands  on  the  summit  of 
the  rock,  and,  carbine  in  hand,  waits  the  arrival  of  the  Eagle. 
The  other  makes  his  way  down  to  the  nest,  climbing  from  cleft 
to  cleft  by  means  of  cords.  With  a  bold  hand  the  Eaglets  are 
grasped,  still  too  young  to  oppose  resistance.  The  parents,  hearing 
the  cries  of  their  young,  swoop  down  furiously,  and  fall  upon  the 
intrepid  mountaineer,  who  beats  them  off  with  thrusts  of  his  pike, 
whilst  his  companion  waits  a  favourable  opportunity  to  deliver  his 
fire,  which  generally  terminates  the  contest." 

The  Eagle  has  been  taken  in  snares ;  but  if  the  instrument  is 
not  fastened  down  securely  to  the  ground,  the  bird  will  tear  it 


EAGLES.  599 

up  and  bear  it  off.  Meisner  relates  that  an  Eagle,  having  been 
caught  by  the  foot  in  a  fox's  trap,  struggled  with  such  effect  that 
it  wrenched  up  the  trap,  and  carried  it  away  to  the  other  side 
of  the  mountain,  although  the  instrument  weighed  nearly  nine 
pounds. 

The  Scotch  employ  a  method  for  capturing  Eagles  which 
originated  from  their  known  voracity.  In  a  narrow  space,  bounded 
by  four  tolerably  high  walls,  they  throw  down  pieces  of  raw 
meat.  The  Eagle  settles  to  devour  it.  When  completely  gorged 
it  becomes  too  heavy  to  fly,  and  endeavours  to  make  his  way  out 
through  an  opening  at  the  foot  of  the  walls,  where  it  is  caught 
and  held  fast  by  a  running  noose,  which  is  placed  in  front  of 
the  exit. 

The  Eagle  is  remarkable  for  its  longevity ;  but  this  cannot  be 
accurately  determined.  Klein  mentions  an  instance  of  one  of 
these  birds  which  lived  in  captivity  in  Vienna  for  one  hundred 
and  four  years;  he  also  speaks  of  a  pair  of  Eagles  in  For- 
farshire,  in  Scotland,  which  inhabited  the  same  aerie  for  such  a 
length  of  time  that  the  oldest  inhabitants  had  always  known 
them. 

If  captured  young,  Eagles  are  susceptible  of  a  certain  amount 
of  education  ;  but  there  always  remains  a  tinge  of  ferocity  in  their 
nature,  which  renders  their  behaviour  gloomy  and  sullen.  When 
old  they  are  absolutely  untamable.  In  captivity  they  adapt  their 
appetite  to  circumstances,  and  will  even  devour  their  own  race. 
When  nothing  better  is  to  be  obtained,  serpents,  lizards,  and, 
according  to  Buffon,  bread  are  acceptable  food  to  them. 

Although  the  Eagle  is  so  irascible  by  nature,  it  has  sometimes 
given  proofs  of  gentleness  truly  astonishing.  We  may  instance 
the  bird  which  lived  in  1807  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  in  Paris, 
which  was  captured  in  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau.  One  of  its 
feet  was  broken  in  the  trap  in  which  it  was  taken,  and  in  con- 
sequence it  was  compelled  to  submit  to  a  most  painful  operation, 
which  it  underwent  with  exemplary  calmness  and  courage. 
Fully  three  months  elapsed  before  it  was  cured,  and  afterwards 
it  became  so  familiar  with  its  keeper  that  it  allowed  itself  to  be 
caressed  by  him,  and  on  his  retiring  for  the  night  the  bird  roosted 
by  his  couch. 


GOO 


KAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 


The  ancient  falconers  of  the  East  were  not  in  the  habit  of 
making  use  of  the  Eagle  ;  its  want  of  docility  and  its  great 
weight  rendered  it  but  little  adapted  for  this  exercise.  Thus 


Fig.  280. — Golden  Eagles  (Aquila  ckrysaetos). 

they  rather  unceremoniously  class  the  Eagle  among  the  ignoble 
birds. 

The  Tartars,  however,  are  in  the  habit  of  using  an  Eagle 
indigenous  to  Central  Asia  to  assist  in  taking  the  hare,  fox, 
antelope,  and  wolf.  As  this  bird  is  weighty,  they  do  not  hold  it 


EAGLES. 


601 


on  the  fist,  but  place  it  in  front  of  their  horse's  saddle.  The  genus 
called  the  Berecoot,  which  is  scarcely  known  by  Europeans,  is  of 
great  power  and  courage.  A  well-known  traveller  describes  a 
scene  he  witnessed  on  the  steppes  of  Tartary,  where  a  pair  of 


Fig.  281. — Imperial  Eagles  (A.  mogilnik). 


them  attacked  and  killed   a  brace  of  wolves  with   the  greatest 
apparent  ease. 

The  Eagle  is  cosmopolitan,  and  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of 
the   globe.       There   are  several  genera   which  we   shall  merely 


602  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

make  mention  of,  because  the  habits  of  all  are  so  exceedingly 
similar. 

The  synonyms  here  given  are  those  used  in  the  classification  of 
the  British  Museum.  The  Royal  Eagle  (Fig.  280),  called  also 
the  Golden  Eagle  (Aquila,  chrysaetos),  attains  a  greater  size  than 
any  other;  it  is  a  native  of  the  North  and  East  of  Europe.  The 
Imperial  Eagle  (Fig.  281)  is  found  in  the  East  and  South 
of  Europe,  and  also  in  North  Africa.  Bonelli's  Eagle  (A. 
Bonellii)  inhabits  Southern  Europe,  particularly  Greece.  The 
Tawny  Eagle  (A.  ncevioides)  is  to  be  met  with  in  all  the  moun- 
tainous and  woody  countries  of  Europe.  The  Booted  Eagle  (A. 
pennata)  lives  in  the  East  and  South  of  Europe,  and  occasionally 
makes  its  appearance  in  France.  Reinwardt's  Eagle  (A.  malay- 
ensis)  is  found  in  the  Malay  peninsula  and  islands ;  and  the 
Yulturine  Eagle  (A.  vulturina)  is  a  species  peculiar  to  South 
Africa,  and  of  which  Levaillant  was  the  first  to  point  out  the 
peculiar  characteristics. 

The  diurnal  birds  of  prey  belonging  to  the  order  of  Sea  or 
Fishing  Eagles  are  distinguished  from  Eagles  proper  by  their 
tarsi,  which  are  feathered  only  in  the  upper  part,  as  well  as  by 
their  feeding  principally  on  marine  animalia. 

SEA  EAGLES. 

Their  name,  Pythargus,  which  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
means  "white- tail."  They  generally  frequent  the  sea-shore,  where 
they  feed  on  fish  and  aquatic  birds  ;  they  sometimes  also  catch 
small  mammals,  and  even  devour  putrefied  flesh.  Their  claws 
are  very  powerful,  and  the  strength  of  their  vision  is  so  great, 
that  they  can  see  their  aquatic  prey  swimming  under  the  surface 
of  the  water.  The  rapidity  with  which  they  descend  through 
the  air  when  striking  at  their  quarry  is  so  wonderful  that 
many  have  compared  it  to  lightning.  They  even  venture  to 
attack  the  Seal,  but  as  they  cannot  lift  their  victim,  they  cling 
to  its  back,  forcing  it  on  shore  by  means  of  their  wings.  But 
this  excess  of  boldness  has  been  known  to  be  fatal  to  them ; 
large  Seals  are  strong  enough  to  dive  and  drag  their  foe  under 
water,  where  the  Eagle  meets  with  a  miserable  death;  for, 


SEA  EAGLES. 


603 


having  buried  its  claws  deeply  in  its  prey,  it  is  often  impossible 
for  it  to  disengage  itself. 

Sea  Eagles  hunt  in  the  night  as  well  as  day.  They  attack 
sea-birds  weaker  than  themselves,  and  pursue  them  to  take  pos- 
session of  their  prey.  They  are  indefatigable  in  pursuit  of 
Vultures,  which  they  make  disgorge,  and  afterwards  appropriate 


Fig.  282.— American  Sea  Eagles  (Haliceetus  leucocephalus) . 

the  results.  Audubon  observed,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mississippi, 
a  Sea  Eagle  pursuing  a  Vulture  which  had  just  swallowed  some 
intestine.  Part  of  this  protruded  from  the  Vulture's  bill ;  the 
Sea  Eagle  seized  it,  and  forced  the  original  possessor  to  give  it  up. 
The  Sea  Eagle  of  Europe  lives  in  the  coldest  regions  of  the 


604  EAPTOEES,  OK  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

globe.  It  is  common  in  Sweden  and  Norway,  where  it  builds. 
Its  aerie  is  about  two  yards  wide,  and  is  generally  situated  in 
the  forests  bordering  on  the  sea  or  great  lakes.  It  visits  the 
French  coasts  in  the  autumn,  following  flocks  of  Geese  which 
are  migrating  to  the  South ;  and  it  is  again  seen  in  the  spring, 
on  its  return  to  the  North.  In.  Russia  the  special  conditions  of 
existence  somewhat  modify  the  habits  of  this  bird,  where,  living 
in  the  midst  of  the  vast  steppes,  it  feeds,  not  on  fish,  for  it  is 
unprocurable,  but  on  small  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  carrion.  This 
bird  nearly  attains  to  the  size  of  the  Golden  Eagle. 

The  BALD  EAGLE,  WHITE-HEADED  EAGLE,  or  SEA  EAGLE  (Fig. 
282),  is  a  native  of  North  America.  It  builds  its  nest  on  the  summit 
of  the  highest  trees.  Its  flight  is  as  powerful  as  that  of  the 
Golden  Eagle,  and  its  strength  and  adroitness  are  even  greater. 

This  Eagle  (Haliceetus  leucocephalus,  Vig.)  is  represented  on  the 
flag  of  the  United  States.  The  illustrious  Franklin  with  sorrow 
regretted  the  selection  his  nation  had  made. 

"  It  is  a  bird  of  low  and  evil  nature,"  wrote  Franklin  in  one  of 
his  letters  ;  "  it  does  not  know  how  to  gain  its  livelihood  honestly. 
Added  to  this,  it  is  nothing  but  a  cowardly  rogue.  The  little 
Wren,  which  is  not  so  large  as  a  Sparrow,  resolutely  attacks  it, 
and  drives  it  from  its  haunts  !  Thus  in  no  point  of  view  is  it  a 
suitable  emblem  for  a  brave  and  honourable  nation." 

The  varieties  of  this  family  are  numerous  on  the  North  American 
continent,  but  the  distinctions  are  not  sufficiently  great  to  deserve 
particular  notice.  Those  from  other  portions  of  the  globe  most 
worthy  of  attention  are  the  Marine  Eagle  (Pandion  ichtkyaetus), 
which  inhabits  Java ;  the  Piscivorous  Sea  Eagle  (  Cuncuma  vocifer)  ; 
the  Caffir  Sea  Eagle,  discovered  in  Africa  by  Levaillant ;  the  Sea 
Eagle  of  Mace  ( C.  Macei) ;  and  the  Pondicherry  Eagle,  called  by 
some  the  Sea  Eagle  of  India,  which  inhabits  India  and  Bengal, 
where  the  bird  is  an  object  of  veneration  among  the  Brahmins, 
being  consecrated  to  Vishnu. 

We  shall  class  with  the  same  genus  the  OSPREY  (Fig.  283), 
which,  although  different  from  Sea  Eagles  in  certain  details  of 
organisation,  is,  however,  allied  to  them  by  its  aquatic  habits. 

It  prefers  the  neighbourhood  of  ponds  and  rivers  to  the  sea- 
shore, where  it  is  frequently  mistaken  for  the  Sea  Eagle.  Wild 


THE  OSPEEY. 


G05 


fowl  and  carrion  are  frequently  its  food,  but  fish  forms  the 
principal  portion  of  its  diet.  It  does  not  always  enjoy  the  fruit 
of  its  labour,  for  the  Sea  Eagle  frequently  forces  it  to  abandon 
its  prey,  which,  if  dropped  in  the  air,  will  be  adroitly  reseized  by 
the  robber  in  its  descent. 

The  old  naturalists,  Aldrovandus,  Gfesner,  Klein,  and  Linnsous 
sanctioned  a  singular  error  concerning  the  organisation  of  this 
bird.  From  the  fact  that  it  sometimes  dives  into  the  water  to 


.tig.  283. — Ihe  Osprey  (PanUiun  /utliteeius). 

catch  fish,  they  imagined  that  it  had  one  foot  webbed  for  swimming, 
and  the  other  furnished  with  prehensile  claws  for  seizing  prey. 
The  River  Osprey  is  about  a  third  smaller  than  the  Sea  Eagle. 
It  is  found  all  over  Europe,  but  especially  in  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, and  the  East  of  France. 

The  birds  which  form  part  of  the  genus  Morphnus  (Cuv.) 
occupy  a  middle  position  between  Eagles  and  Sparrow-hawks, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  further  on.  They  are  characterised  by  a 
full  and  rounded  tail,  comparatively  short  wings,  and  the  existence 


606  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

of  a  tuft  on  the  back  of  the  head.      This  latter  feature,  although 
general,  is  not,  however,  common  to  all  the  species. 

These  birds  generally  inhabit  the  vast  forests  of  Africa  and 
South  America.  They  are  admirably  organised  for  strife  and 
slaughter,  and  are  the  terror  of  every  creature  in  their  neigh- 
bourhood. 

The  HUPPART  (Falco  occipitalis,  Daudin),  thus  named  on  account 
of  its  huppe,  or  tuft,  which  is  about  six  inches  long,  is  a  native  of 
Africa,  and  feeds  on  Hares,  Ducks,  and  Partridges.  It  also  pursues 
Crows,  for  which  it  feels  a  deadly  hatred,  as  these  birds  sometimes 
league  together  to  deprive  it  of  its  prey,  and  even  to  devour  its 
brood.  It  will  not  suffer  any  rival  in  its  domain,  but  accords  pro- 
tection to  small  birds  which  come  near  to  its  nest  to  seek  a  shelter 
from  the  attacks  of  inferior  birds  of  prey. 

The  Falco  urubitinga  (Gmelin)  inhabits  Brazil  and  Guiana ;  it  is 
eminently  wild  and  taciturn,  and  builds  its  nest  in  the  vicinity 
of  marshes.  It  feeds  on  birds,  small  mammals,  reptiles,  and  even 
fish. 

The  HARPY,  or  DESTRUCTIVE  EAGLE  of  South  America  (Harpyia 
destructor,  Cuv.),  Fig.  284,  is  the  model  species  of  the  genus.  It 
is  the  most  formidable  of  the  whole  tribe  of  Eagles  ;  for  it  is  larger, 
measuring  nearly  five  feet  from  the  extremity  of  the  head  to  that 
of  the  tail ;  its  bill  is  more  than  two  inches  in  length ;  and  its 
claws  and  toes  are  longer  and  more  robust  than  the  fingers  of 
a  man.  It  is  rumoured  that  the  Harpy  does  not  fear  to  attack  car- 
nivora  of  large  size,  and  even  men.  Two  or  three  blows  from 
its  bill  are  sufficient  to  break  its  victim's  skull.  In  order  to 
render  these  assertions  worthy  of  belief  they  should  be  confirmed 
by  those  who  have  enjoyed  opportunities  for  observation. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  there  is  no  doubt  that  Harpies  are  endowed 
with  extraordinary  strength.  D'Orbigny  relates  that  at  the  time 
of  an  exploring  expedition  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Securia,  in 
Bolivia,  he  met  with  a  Harpy  of  large  size.  The  Indians  who 
accompanied  him  pursued  it,  pierced  it  with  two  arrows,  and  gave 
it  numerous  blows  on  the  head.  At  length,  thinking  it  was  dead, 
they  plucked  off  the  greater  part  of  its  feathers,  and  even  the 
down  also,  placing  it  afterwards  in  their  canoe.  What  was  the 
surprise  of  the  naturalist  when  the  bird  recovered  from  its  stupe- 


THE  WHITE-BELLIED  EAGLE. 


607 


faction,  darted  upon  him,  and  burying  its  claws  in  his  arm,  inflicted 
most  dangerous  wounds!  The  interference  of  the  Indians  was 
necessary  in  order  to  rid  him  of  his  antagonist. 

The  Harpy  inhabits  the  great  forests  of  South  America  situated 


Fig.  284. — The  Harpy  (Harpyia  destructor,  Cuv.). 

on  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Its  food  consists  of  agoutis,  fawns, 
sloths,  and  especially  monkeys. 

The  Indians,  who  highly  estimate  warlike  qualities,  hold  this 
bird  in  great  respect,  and  consider  it  most  valuable.  Its  tail 
and  wing  feathers  they  use  to  adorn  themselves  with  on  state 
occasions. 

The  WHITE-BELLIED  EAGLE  (Cuncuma  leucogaster) ,  so  called 
because  its  plumage  is  white  underneath,  has  points  of  similarity 
to  the  Eagle,  the  Sea  Eagle,  and  the  River  Osprey.  It  is  two 


608  EAPTOEES,  OR  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

feet  in  height,  and  its  spread  of  wings  is  five  feet.  It  is  very 
common  all  over  Europe,  and  is  only  too  well  known  to  the 
villagers  on  whose  poultry-yards  it  frequently  leaves  heavy  tax. 
It  also  feeds  on  moles,  field-mice,  reptiles,  adders,  and  sometimes 
insects.  It  hears  captivity  very  well.  Buffon  reared  one  which 
"became  tolerably  familiar,  but  never  showed  the  least  affection  for 
those  who  tended  it. 

FALCONS  (fiomfalx,  a  reaping-hook)  are  marvellously  organised 
for  rapine,  and  realise  the  ideal  of  a  bird  of  prey.  They  have 
a  short  bill,  bent  from  the  base,  with  a  very  strong  tooth  on 
each  side  of  the  upper  mandible,  with  which  an  indentation 
corresponds  in  the  lower  portion.  The  wings  of  this  bird  are 
long  and  pointed,  causing  its  flight  to  be  at  once  powerful,  rapid, 
and  agile.  Its  tarsi  are  short,  and  its  claws  hooked  and  sharp. 
When  we  add  to  all  this  a  most  penetrating  vision  and  enormous 
strength,  it  will  easily  be  understood  that  these  birds  inspire 
terror  wherever  they  go.  They  feed  only  on  living  prey — birds  or 
small  mammals — which  they  often  instantaneously  kill  and  carry 
off  to  eat  elsewhere.  They  always  hunt  on  the  wing.  They 
assemble  in  flocks  at  the  time  of  migration  to  follow  the  birds 
of  passage.  At  other  times  they  live  in  solitary  couples,  and 
build  their  nest,  according  to  the  locality,  in  woods,  cliffs,  holes 
in  quarries,  or  in  ruined  habitations,  and  sometimes  even  in  the 
interior  of  towns.  They  lay  from  two  to  four  eggs. 

We  shall  divide  the  Falcon  genus  into  two  groups :  Gyr- 
falcons,  characterised  by  tails  longer  than  their  wings;  and  Falcons 
proper,  which  have  the  wings  as  long,  and  sometimes  longer,  than 
the  tail. 

The  group  of  Gyrfalcons,  or  Jerfalcons,  comprehends  the  Gyr- 
falcon  proper,  theLanner  Falcon  (Falco  lannarius),  and  the  Sacred 
Falcon. 

The  Egyptians  venerated  the  Falcon,  and  to  this  circumstance 
the  name  of  Gyrfalcon  must  be  attributed,  as  it  is  a  corruption  of 
Hierofalco,  or  Sacred  Falcon. 

The  GYRFALCON  is  the  best-proportioned  and  most  active  member 
of  the  Falcon  tribe.  In  strength  it  even  rivals  the  Eagle  itself, 
although  it  is  hardly  two  feet  in  height.  Its  colour  varies  with  its 
age.  When  young  it  is  of  a  beautiful  brown  tint,  but  becomes 


GYEFALCONS. 


609 


almost  white  with  age.     It  .inhabits  the  Arctic  regions,  where  it 
feeds  on  large  birds,  principally  Gallinacese  or  Palmipedes. 

Three  varieties  of  this  species  are  known,  all  very  similar  to 
each  other :  the  White  Falcon,  called  by  Buffon  the  White  Gyr- 
falcon  of  the  North,  which  inhabits  the  extreme  north  of  the  two 


Fig.  285.— Sultan  Falcons  (F.peregrinatof). 

continents ;  the  Falco  islandicus,  or  Gyrfalcon  of  Iceland,  peculiar 
to  that  country ;  and  the  Gyrfalcon  of  Norway,  which  is  found  in 
Scandinavia,  and  sometimes  appears  in  Germany,  Holland,  and 
France. 

R  R 


010 


RAPTOEES,  OE  BIRDS  OF  PEEY. 


The  first  two  of  these  are  very  docile,  and  consequently  were 
eagerly  sought  after  by  falconers,  who  used  them  for  pursuing 
the  Heron,  Crane,  and  Stork.  An  ancient  Danish  law,  which 
was  repealed  in  1758,  forbade,  under  pain  of  death,  the  destruc- 
tion of  these  birds. 

The  LANNER  FALCON  (Buifon)  is  about  the  same  size  as  the 
White  Gyrfalcon;  it  is  found  in  Hungary,  Russia,  Styria,  and 
Greece,  where  it  makes  its  appearance  after  the  arrival  of  the 
birds  of  passage.  It  is  also  easily  trained  for  hawking. 


i-i#.  286.— Peregrine  Falcon  (F.  pereyrinus). 

The  SULTAN  FALCON  (F.  peregrinator],  Fig.  285,  is  larger  than 
the  preceding  species.  It  is  found  in  Germany  and  Southern 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor. 

In  the  first  rank  of  Falcons  proper  must  be  mentioned  the 
PEREGRINE  FALCON  (Fig.  286),  often  designated  by  the  names  of 
the  Common  Falcon  and  the  Passenger  Falcon.  As  its  name 
sufficiently  indicates,  it  is  a  bird  of  passage.  It  is  common  in  the 
centre  and  north  of  Western  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  islands  of 
the  Mediterranean.  It  also  inhabits  North  America,  where  it  is 
frequently  called  the  Chicken- eater. 

The  flight  of  the  Peregrine  Falcon  is  wonderfully  rapid.     One 


THE  PEREGEINE  FALCON.  Gil 

of  these  birds  having  escaped  from  the  falconry  of  Henri  II.,  it 
is  said  that  it  performed  the  whole  distance  from  Fontainebleau  to 
Malta  in  one  day,  over  three  hundred  leagues.  It  hovers  in  the 
air  with  graceful  facility,  and  when  it  marks  a  victim,  darts  upon 
it  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  courage,  and  ferocity. 

The  Falcon  feeds  principally  on  aquatic  birds,  Pigeons, 
Partridges,  and  Larks.  So  great  is  its  courage  that  it  has 
been  known  to  pursue  the  latter  into  the  nets  of  the  bird- 
catcher.  If  compelled,  it  will  eat  dead  fish,  as  was  observed  by 
Audubon  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi ;  but  this  latter  cir- 
cumstance is  excessively  rare.  This  bird  possesses  little  dread  of 
man,  for  it  sometimes  has  the  audacity  to  swoop  upon  the  game 
which  the  sportsman  has  killed,  and  not  unfrequently  succeeds 
in  carrying  it  off.  One  of  these  birds  established  itself,  some 
years  ago,  on  the  towers  of  Notre-Dame,  in  Paris,  and  every  day 
captured  several  of  the  tame  Pigeons  which  fly  at  liberty  in  the 
city.  This  continued  for  a  month,  and  was  only  put  a  stop  to 
by  the  proprietors  of  the  Pigeons  keeping  their  pets  shut  up. 
Thus  deprived  of  its  means  of  existence,  the  Falcon  soon  dis- 
appeared. 

Notwithstanding  the  magnificent  powers  of  flight  of  the  Pere- 
grine Falcon,  it  is  not  always  successful  in  its  forays.  Naumann 
narrates  that  he  saw  a  Pigeon  pursued  by  one  of  these  destroyers 
throw  itself  into  a  lake,  dive  down,  and  shortly  after  emerge 
in  another  part,  thus  baffling  its  enemy.  When  a  Pigeon  is 
harassed  by  a  Falcon  it  endeavours  to  mount  above  its  enemy ; 
if  it  succeeds  in  this  it  is  saved,  for  the  Falcon  becomes  fatigued, 
and  gives  up  the  pursuit. 

Large  Havens  are  inveterate  enemies  of  the  Peregrine  Falcon. 
They  have  frequent  fights,  in  which  the  former  sometimes  prove 
the  conquerors.  A  Raven  has  been  known  to  break  the  skull  of 
a  Falcon  with  a  blow  of  its  bill. 

The  Falcon  is  gifted  with  a  more  remarkable  degree  of  longevity 
than  even  the  Eagle.  It  is  reported  that  in  1797,  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  a  Falcon  was  caught  which  showed  no  signs  of 
decrepitude,  and  which  had  on  a  golden  collar  with  an  inscription 
stating  that  in  1610  it  belonged  to  James  I.,  King  of  England  ;  it 
was  therefore  over  one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  years  old. 

RR2 


612  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

The  parent  birds  exhibit  the  greatest  solicitude  for  their  young 


Tig.  287.— The  Hobby  (Hypobuorchis  sulbuteo). 

until  able  to  provide  for  themselves :  when  that  stage  of  maturity 
arrives  thev  are  driven  forth. 


Fig.  288.— Merlins  (H.  JEsalon). 

The  Peregrine  Falcon  is  found  among  the  cliffs  of  Normandy, 


HAWKING.  C13 

There  are  other  species  of  Falcons  smaller  than  the  preceding. 
They  are  only  distinguished  from  them  by  their  size ;  their  habits 
are  identical,  except  that  they  prey  on  smaller  birds,  such  as 
Quails,  Larks,  Swallows,  and  sometimes  insects.  These  species 
are :  the  Hobby  (Fig.  287),  which  is  found  all  over  Europe, 
and  also  in  Africa — it  is  about  a  foot  in  height ;  the  Merlin  (Fig. 
288),  which  is  not  much  larger  than  a  Thrush,  and  in  summer 


Fig.  289. — Kestrel  (Tinnunculus  alaud.tr ius). 

inhabits  the  North,  and  in  winter  the  South,  of  Europe;  the 
Kestrel  (Fig.  289),  which  owes  its  name  to  its  sharp  cry — it  is 
thirteen  inches  in  height,  and  is  common  in  the  centre  of  Europe  ; 
lastly,  the  Bengal  Falcon  (Terax  c&rulescens) ,  which  is  a  native 
of  India  and  Java — this  is  the  smallest  of  all  birds  of  prey. 
Several  other  varieties  of  Falcon,  which  do  not  present  any 
remarkable  peculiarity,  are  met  with  both  in  Africa  and  America. 

The  name  of  Falcon  is  still  associated  with  the  sport  of  hawking 
or  falconry,  of  which  we  are  about  to  speak. 

Falconry,  the  art  of  training  or  flying  hawks  to  take  other 
birds,  was  formerly  held  in  high  esteem  in  the  various  countries 


614  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

of  Europe.  In  consequence  of  the  invention  of  fire-arms,  after 
having  been  for  centuries  the  delight  of  kings  and  nobles,  it 
fell  into  disuse.  The  Arabs  and  other  Asiatic  nations  adhere 
to  it  to  the  present  day.  This  sport  may  be  traced  back  to  a 
very  remote  period,  for  Aristotle,  and  subsequently  Pliny,  make 
mention  of  it.  Falconry  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  the 
fourth  century  of  our  era,  and  was  at  its  greatest  repute  in  the 
Middle  Ages  and  during  the  Renaissance.  All  the  nobility,  from 
the  monarch  to  the  lowest  courtier,  were  passionately  fond  of 
hawking — the  name  specially  applied  to  it.  Sovereigns  and  noble- 
men expended  princely  sums  upon  it.  The  gift  of  a  few  fine 
Falcons  was  considered  a  magnificent  present.  The  kings  of 
France  solemnly  received  twelve  Falcons  every  year,  which  were 
given  to  them  by  the  grand-master  of  the  Order  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.  They  were  intrusted  on  their  voyage  to  a  French 
knight  of  the  order,  to  whom  the  monarch  accorded,  under  the 
name  of  a  present,  a  sum  of  £3,000,  and  the  expenses  of  his 
journey. 

Gentlemen,  and  even  ladies,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  seldom  appeared 
in  public  without  a  Falcon  on  their  wrists ;  and  this  example  was 
followed  by  bishops  and  abbots — they  entered  the  churches  sup- 
porting their  favourite  birds,  depositing  them  on  the  steps  of  the 
altar  during  mass.  Noblemen  on  public  ceremonies  proudly  held 
their  Falcons  in  one  hand  and  the  hilt  of  their  sword  in  the 
other. 

Louis  XIII.  was  devoted  to  falconry.  Daily  he  went  hawking 
before  going  to  church ;  and  his  favourite,  Albert  de  Luynes, 
owed  his  fortune  to  his  great  skill  in  this  science.  Charles 
d'Arcussia  of  Capri,  Lord  of  Esparron,  published,  in  1615,  a 
"  Treatise  on  Falconry,"  in  which  it  is  stated  that  the  Baron  de 
la  Chastaigneraie,  chief  falconer  of  France  under  Louis  XIII., 
purchased  his  office  at  a  cost  of  fifty  thousand  crowns.  He  had 
the  direction  of  one  hundred  and  forty  birds,  which  required  the 
assistance  of  a  staff  of  one  hundred  men  for  their  care. 

This  kind  of  sport  has  almost  totally  disappeared ;  a  revival 
of  it  in  England  and  Germany  has  taken  place,  but  only  with 
moderate  success.  For  this  purpose  a  society,  called  the  "  Hawking 
Club,"  meets  together  every  year  in  a  dependency  of  the  royai 


HAWKING.  015 

castle  of  Loo,  under  the  presidency  of  the  King  of  the  Netherlands, 
tojly  the  Heron.  They  take  from  one  to  two  hundred  of  these  birds 
in  the  space  of  two  months ;  but  this  is  only  a  feeble  resuscitation 
of  an  institution  which  has  now  practically  passed  away. 

Falcons  were  formerly  divided  into  birds  of  the  noble  and  inferior 
grades.  The  former  comprehended  the  Gryrfalcon,  the  Falcon,  the 
Hobby,  the  Merlin,  and  the  Kestrel ;  the  latter,  the  Goshawk  and 
Sparrow-hawk.  The  name  of  Goshawk  training  has  been  given  to 
the  art  whose  special  end  was  the  education  of  these  last  two  birds. 
As  the  mode  of  education  varies  little  for  all  these  birds,  which 
only  differ  in  docility,  we  shall  merely  consider  one  species,  that 
of  the  Falcon,  which  will  serve  as  a  type  for  all  the  others. 

The  Falcons  destined  for  training  must  be  captured  young. 
Those  that  have  been  providing  their  own  food,  and  have  nearly 
reached  maturity,  are  taken  with  a  lure,  which  is  generally 
a  Pigeon.  Young  birds  which  have  just  left  the  nest  are  called 
eyases ;  when  rather  more  mature,  branchers  ;  that  is  to  say,  birds 
about  three  months  old,  strong  enough  to  hop  from  branch  to 
branch,  but  incapable  of  flying  or  providing  for  their  own  sub- 
sistence.  The  latter  are  preferable  to  all  others,  as  they  are  not 
so  young  as  to  require  the  care  necessary  to  the  eyas,  and  are  yet 
not  old  enough  to  have  become  intractable.  At  a  year  old  it  would 
be  nearly  useless  to  attempt  their  education  ;  they  are  then  called 
haggards. 

The  Falcon  being  naturally  wild,  violent,  and  alike  insensible 
to  caresses  and  chastisements,  it  can  only  be  tamed  by  priva- 
tions, such  as  want  of  light,  sleep,  and  food,  and  also  by  constantly 
being  cared  for  by  the  same  person.  This  is  the  foundation  of  the 
method  which  the  falconer  practises. 

Supposing  that  a  brancher  has  been  caught,  its  legs  are  first  made 
fast  in  the  shackles,  or  bewits  (Fig.  290),  made  of  straps  of  supple 
leather,  terminated  by  bells.  Then  the  falconer,  his  hand  covered 
with  a  glove,  takes  the  Falcon  on  his  wrist,  and  carries  it  about 
night  and  day,  without  allowing  it  rest.  If  the  pupil  is  in- 
tractable, refuses  to  submit,  and  tries  to  use  its  bill,  the  tamer 
plunges  its  head  into  cold  water,  and  thus  produces  stupor  in  the 
bird.  Afterwards  the  head  is  covered  with  a  hood  (Fig.  2^1),  which 
keeps  it  in  complete  darkness.  Alter  three  davs  and  nights  of  this 


616 


EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 


treatment,  rarely  more,  the  bird  becomes,  to  a  certain  extent, 
docile.     The   falconer  then  accustoms  it  to  take  its  food  quietly  ; 


Fig.  290.— Bewits. 

this  is  presented  in  the  hand,  while  at  the  same  time  a  peculiar  noise 
is  made,  which  it  learns  to  recognise  as  a  call.  In  the  meantime  it 
is  carried  about  in  frequented  places, 
so  as  to  familiarise  it  with  strangers, 
and  also  with  horses  and  dogs,  which 
are  to  be  at  some  future  time  its  com- 
panions in  the  chase.  When  an  obsti- 
nate bird  is  dealt  with  its  appetite  is 
excited,  so  as  to  render  it  more  de- 
pendent; with  this  view  it  is  made  to 
swallow  small  pellets  of  tow  mixed  up 
with  garlic  and  wormwood.  These 
pellets  have  the  effect  of  increasing 


Fig.  291.— Hood. 


Fig.  292.— Dressed  Falcon. 


its  hunger ;   and  the  pleasure  which  it  afterwards  experiences  in 
eating  tends  to  attach  it  more  closely  to  the  individual  who  feeds  it. 


HAWKING.  617 

In  a  general  way,  after  five  or  six  days  of  restraint  the  Falcon 
is  tamed,  and  the  falconer  can  then  proceed  with  the  training, 
to  which  the  former  practices  are  nothing  but  preliminaries. 

The  bird  is  taken  into  a  garden,  and  taught  to  hop  up  on  the 
fist  when  called ;  a  piece  of  meat  is  shown  to  entice  it,  which  is 
not  given  to  the  bird  until  the  requisite  manoauvre  is  properly 
executed.  The  meat  is  then  fastened  to  a  lure,  or  decoy,  and  the 
same  course  is  adopted,  the  bird  being  attached  to  the  end  of 
a  string  from  ten  to  forty  yards  in  length.  The  lure  (Fig.  293) 
is  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  covered  on  both  sides  with  the  wings 
and  feet  of  a  Pigeon.  The  Falcon  is  uncovered,  and  the  lure 
is  shown  to  it  at  a  short  distance  off,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  call  is  given.  If  the  bird  stoops  upon  the  lure  it  is  allowed 
to  take  the  meat  which  is  attached  to  it.  The  distance  is  pro- 
gressively increased,  and  the  Falcon  is  recompensed  for  its  docility 
on  each  occasion.  When,  at  the  full  length  of  the  string,  it 
will  obey  the  call,  a  great  point  is  gained,  for  it  fully  recog- 
nises the  lure,  and  knows  that  the  meat  attached  will  become  its 
own  on  returning  to  its  master.  Then  the  falconer  no  longer  fears 
it  becoming  free,  for  he  well  knows  he  can  reclaim  it ;  that  is, 
make  it  settle  down  upon  his  fist,  even  when  the  bird  is  flying  in 
the  air. 

Afterwards  it  is  introduced  to  living  game  by  letting  it  fly  at 
tied  Pigeons ;  and,  lastly,  its  education  is  completed  by  habitu- 
ating it  to  stoop  on  the  special  game  which  it  is  intended  to 
chase. 

Supposing  the  game  it  is  destined  for  pursuing  to  be  the 
Partridge,  in  the  first  place,  the  Pigeon's  wings  on  the  lure  are 
replaced  by  those  of  the  Partridge,  and  then  the  Falcon  is  let 
fly  in  succession,  first  at  Partridges  tied  to  a  string,  and  then  at 
liberated  birds.  When  it  binds  its  prey  well,  and  shows  itself 
obedient,  it  is  employed  on  wild  game. 

Birds  of  prey  used  to  be  educated  for  taking  the  Kite,  the 
Heron,  the  Crow,  the  Magpie,  the  Hare,  Partridges,  Quails,  and 
Pheasants ;  also  Wild  Ducks  and  other  aquatic  birds. 

The  pursuit  of  the  Kite,  the  Heron,  the  Crow,  and  the  Magpie, 
the  profit  of  which  was  absolutely  nothing,  was  looked  upon  as  a 
sport  fit  for  princes,  and  was  carried  on  by  means  of  the  Falcon 


018 


EAPTOEES,  OR  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 


and  Gyrfalcon.  But  the  chase  of  other  birds,  in  which  the  in- 
ducement was  a  prey  fit  for  food,  was  considered  the  sport  of  an 
esquire ;  and  for  this  were  used  the  Hobby  (Hobereau,  French),  the 
Merlin,  the  Kestrel,  the  Goshawk,  and  the  Sparrow-hawk.  Hence 
comes  the  nickname  of  Hobereau  applied  to  French  country  gen- 
tlemen; "because/'  as  Lacurnede  Sainte-Palaye  says,  "  they  wish 
to  show  an  appearance  of  more  property  than  they  really  possess  ; 
and  not  being  able  to  keep  Falcons,  which  cost  too  much  in  their 
purchase  and  food,  they  hawk  with  Hobbies,  which  are  readily  pro- 
cured, and  also  provide  Partridges  and  Quails  for  their  kitchens." 
The  most  noble  cast,  but  also  the  rarest,  was  that  at  the  Kite. 
We  have  already  mentioned,  when  speaking  of  nocturnal  birds  of 
prey,  how  at  one  time  they  were  in  the  habit  of  alluring  this 
bird  by  means  of  a  Great  (Long-eared)  Owl, 
dressed  out  with  a  fox's  brush.  Some  'strata- 
gem of  this  kind  was  obliged  to  be  used  in 
order  to  get  near  the  Kite,  which  flies  at 
heights  altogether  inaccessible  to  the  best 
Falcon.  When  the  Kite  came  within  range 
a  Falcon  was  let  fly,  and  then  a  most  inter- 
esting conflict  took  place  between  the  two 
birds.  The  Kite,  harassed  by  its  enemy,  and, 
in  spite  of  its  turns  and  twists  and  numberless 
feints,  unable  to  escape  him,  generally  in  the 
end  fell  into  its  foe's  clutches. 

The  cast  at  a  Heron  generally  presented 
fewer  incidents.  This  bird,  from  not  being 
gifted  with  the  same  powers  of  wing,  was 
unavoidably  overtaken  with  much  greater  ease,  although,  when 
not  overloaded  with  food,  it  occasionally  managed  to  escape.  Still 
it  always  defended  itself  with  energy,  and  the  blows  of  its  formid- 
able bill  were  often  fatal  to  its  pursuer.  In  Heron  hawking  (Fig. 
294)  a  dog  was  required  to  flush  the  game,  and  three  Falcons  to 
capture  it :  the  duty  of  the  first  was  to  make  the  quarry  rise,  of  the 
second  to  follow  it,  and  of  the  third  to  clutch  it.  We  shall  quote 
from  an  ancient  author  of  a  "  Treatise  on  Falconry  "  the  account 
of  a  cast  at  a  Heron  ;  the  description  will  well  explain  the  details 
of  this  kind  of  sport. 


Fig.  293.— The  Lure. 


HAWKING. 


619 


"  Now  riding  fast,  we  soon  came  by  the  side  of  the  meadows 
adjoining  the  warren,  where  the  '  markers  '  of  M.  de  Ligne  dis- 
covered three  Herons,  and  at  once  came  to  tell  him  of  it.  Making 
up  his  mind  to  attack  them,  the  Sieur  de  Ligne  did  me  the  favour 


of  giving  me  a  white  Gyrfalcon,  named  '  La  Perle/  to  let  fly ;  he 
himself  took  another,  called  'Le  Gentilhomme/  and  one  of  his 
people  took  a  third,  named '  Le  Pinson/  When  the  Herons  heard 
us  approach  they  became  alarmed,  and  took  wing  while  we  were 
yet  some  distance  off;  seeing  this,  we  let  fly  the  birds,  which  were 


620  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

some  time  before  they  perceived  the  quarry.  At  last  one  of  the 
Hawks  caught  sight  of  them,  and  went  in  pursuit.  The  two  others 
immediately  followed  with  so  much  ardour  and  speed  that  in  a  very 
short  time  they  had  all  reached  the  Herons,  and  were  attacking  one, 
which  defended  itself ;  but  it  was  so  roughly  treated  that  it  could  not 
make  much  resistance,  and  was  soon  taken.  Whilst  the  Falcons 
were  having  their  pleasure  with  it  (that  is,  whilst  the  quarry  was 
being  given  them),  the  other  Herons,  frightened  at  seeing  their 
companion  so  badly  treated,  kept  on  rising  in  the  direction  of  the 
sun,  hoping  to  shelter  themselves  in  its  glare.  But  they  were 
descried ;  M.  de  Lign6  told  me  of  this,  saying,  '  I  can  see  the  two 
Herons  up  above  still  rising.  I  give  you  one  as  your  share/  On 
which,  seeing  them  at  such  an  immense  height,  I  replied  that  the 
Falcons  would  have  great  difficulty  in  getting  at  them.  Then  he 
let  fly  his  bird,  we  doing  likewise,  and  they  all  vied  with  one 
another  in  soaring  upwards,  using  such  diligence  that  soon  we 
saw  them  almost  as  high  up  as  one  of  the  Herons.  Having  first 
made  an  effort  and  got  above  their  prey,  they  commenced  to  deal 
it  such  a  shower  of  blows  that  it  seemed  stupefied,  and  flew  down 
to  gain  the  shelter  of  the  woods.  We  rode  forward  to  bring  the 
hounds  to  the  assistance  of  the  Falcons,  and  were  just  in  time; 
for  the  Heron  had  thrown  itself  into  a  thicket,  in  which  we 
captured  it  alive,  although  taken  from  the  mouth  of  one  of  the 
dogs.  Giving  this  bird  to  the  Falcons,  we  mounted  our  horses 
again  to  let  fly  after  another." 

The  casts  at  the  Crow  and  the  Magpie  were  also  very  amusing. 
These  birds  would  try  at  first  to  escape  by  means  of  speed,  and  then, 
recognising  the  uselessness  of  their  efforts,  they  afterwards  took 
refuge  in  a  tree,  from  which  the  falconers  had  much  trouble  to 
drive  them,  so  great  was  their  terror  for  their  pursuers. 

For  field  and  river  sport  the  Falcon  is  not  let  fly  direct  from  the 
fist;  that  is,  the  Falcon  does  not  attack  immediately  on  leaving  the 
hand — it  is  thrown  up,  or,  in  common  parlance,  is  let  fly,  before 
the  game  flushes.  The  Falcon  hovers  for  some  time,  and  then 
stoops  down  on  the  prey  which  the  dogs  have  forced  up.  In  order 
to  escape  its  persecutor  the  Wild  Duck  often  takes  to  the  water ; 
from  this  the  dogs  again  force  it  to  take  wing.  The  Hare  is 
hunted  in  much  the  same  way. 


HAWKING.  621 

Hawking  is  even  nowadays  held  in  high,  honour  in  the  North 
of  Africa  and  in  Asia,  being  the  favourite  diversion  of  the  Arabs. 
In  the  Sahara  the  Falcon  is  trained  to  hunt  Pigeons,  Partridges, 
Hares,  Rabbits,  and  even  the  Gazelle. 

In  Persia  and  Turkestan  the  Falcon  is  not  trained,  as  it  used  to 
be  in  Europe,  for  some  special  game ;  they  accustom  it  to  stoop  on 
all  kinds  of  prey.  Hunting  the  gazelle  with  Hawks  is  a  diversion 
much  esteemed  among  these  nations.  The  plan  adopted  is  as 
follows  : — 

"The  Persians,"  says  Thevenot,  the  traveller,  "provide  stuffed 
Gazelles,  on  the  noses  of  which  they  always  place  the  food  for  their 
Falcons,  and  never  feed  them  anywhere  else.  After  they  have 
been  thus  trained  they  take  them  out  into  the  open  country,  and 
when  they  see  a  Gazelle  they  let  fly  two  of  these  birds,  one  of 
which  darts  down  on  the  nose  of  the  Gazelle,  and  fastens  on  to  it 
with  its  talons.  The  Gazelle  stops  short,  and  shakes  himself  to 
get  rid  of  the  bird ;  but  the  latter  keeps  his  place  for  some  time 
by  means  of  flapping  his  wings,  thus  preventing  the  Gazelle  from 
running  fast,  and  even  from  seeing  where  it  is  going.  When  at 
last,  with  some  trouble,  the  Gazelle  disengages  itself  from  its 
pursuer,  the  -other  Falcon,  which  is  flying  near,  takes  the  place  of 
the  one  thrown  off;  the  latter,  in  its  turn,  again  resumes  the 
assault  when  its  companion  has  fallen.  The  birds  thus  hinder  the 
running  of  the  Gazelle,  so  that  the  dogs  easily  overtake  it." 

In  Egypt  the  Falcon  is  trained  for  this  kind  of  sport  by  taking 
it  young,  limiting  the  quantity  of  its  food,  and  then  frequently 
bringing  it  into  the  presence  of  sheep  :  being  in  a  famished  state, 
the  bird  unhesitatingly  darts  on  them. 

Hawking  is  also  held  in  high  esteem  in  India,  both  by  the 
natives  and  Europeans  resident  there.  It  is  no  rare  thing  to  see 
young  ladies  reviving  all  the  customs  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
penetrating  into  the  jungles  mounted  on  elephants,  accompanied 
by  their  Falcons,  which  are  flown  at  the  charming  blue  antelope. 

In  China  and  Japan  hawking  is  also  very  popular :  in  the  course 
of  a  day's  journey  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  meet  persons  pur- 
suing this  sport. 

The  birds  which  form  the  next  family  differ  from  the  Falcon 
in  having  no  teeth  in  the  upper  mandible  of  the  bill ;  their  tarsi, 


022 


RAPTOBES,  OR  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 


also,  are  longer,  and  their  wings  shorter.  Their  flight,  too,  is  both 
less  high  and  less  rapid  than  that  of  the  Falcon.  They  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  presenting  some  slight  modifications  due 
to  the  influence  of  climate.  They  generally  feed  on  small  birds 
and  reptiles,  and  exceptionally  on  very  small  mammals.  They 
are  divided  into  Goshawks  proper  and  Sparrow-hawks. 

There  are  various  species  of  the  Goshawk,  all  characterised 
by  very  strong  tarsi,  one  only  of  which,  the  Common  Goshawk,  is 
a  native  of  Europe. 

The  COMMON  GOSHAWK  (Fig.  295)  is  by  no  means  rare  in 
France  and  England.  In  summer  it  frequents  the  oak  and  beech 


Fig.  295.— Goshawks  (Astttr  palum- 
barius). 


Fig.  296.— Common  Sparrow-hawk 
(Accipiter  nisus). 


woods  which  cover  the  mountain- sides,  and  sometimes  ventures 
near  habitations  to  carry  off  Fowls  and  Pigeons.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  autumn  it  descends  into  the  plains,  making  its 
nest  on  the  skirts  of  some  extensive  wood,  from  which  it  darts 
out  upon  Partridges,  Grouse,  or  young  Leverets,  which  form  its 


SPARROW-HAWKS.  623 

principal  food.  It  pursues  Larks  with  such  ardour  that  it  often 
falls  into  the  snares  laid  for  these  birds  ;  but  it  will  never  attempt 
to  get  free  from  the  trap  until  it  has  satiated  its  sanguinary 
appetite.  "When  hunting  for  its  prey  it  skims  over  the  ground  and 
bushes,  carefully  inspecting  each.  Should  it  perceive  a  victim,  it 
approaches  with  caution  until  within  striking  distance,  when  it 
suddenly  darts  upon  its  prey  with  unerring  precision.  This  bird 
is  as  large  as  the  Gyrfalcon,  but,  although  equal  in  cunning  and 
address,  is  possessed  of  less  courage. 

The  Goshawk  is  difficult  to  tame  ;  its  ferocious  nature  is  not 
subdued  by  captivity.  In  1850,  a  young  one  four  months  old,  kept 
in  the  Botanical  Garden  of  the  Natural  History  Society  of  Savoy, 
killed  with  its  claws  and  bill  a  Kite  the  same  age  as  itself,  which 
had  been  its  companion  for  fifteen  days.  The  young  savage  tore 
its  victim  to  pieces  and  fed  on  the  carcass,  although  it  had  not  the 
least  necessity  for  food,  being  perfectly  well  cared  for. 

The  Common  Goshawk  is  also  found  in  the  North  of  Africa. 
Two  other  species  are  known  in  North  America. 

The  SPARROW-HAWKS  are  distinguished  from  the  preceding  birds 
by  the  slenderness  of  their  tarsi.  The  Common  Sparrow-hawk 
(Fig.  296)  is  found  all  over  Europe.  In  France  it  is  a  constant 
resident.  Although  smaller,  it  has  much  the  same  habits  as  the 
Goshawk,  but  is  bolder,  and  will  carry  off  Partridges,  or  other 
small  game,  under  the  very  hands  of  sportsmen  or  gamekeepers. 
It  will  even  attack  and  devour  Fowls  and  chickens  in  the  poultry- 
yard,  and  so  absorbed  does  it  become  in  the  enjoyment  of  its  feast 
that  a  person  may  sometimes  get  sufficiently  near  to  capture  it. 
In  the  plains  where  game  is  abundant,  Sparrow-hawks  are  very 
destructive,  and  consequently  are  seldom  spared  when  within 
gunshot. 

The  Sparrow-hawk  (Acclpiter  fringillarius  of  some  authors)  will 
become  gentle  and  tame  in  captivity.  Dr.  Franklin  mentions  an 
instance  of  one  of  these  birds,  belonging  to  a  friend  of  his,  which 
lived  with  two  Pigeons.  This  bird  had  succeeded  in  gaming  the 
affection  of  all  who  knew  it,  and  was,  it  is  said,  as  playful  as  a  cat. 

Africa  possesses  two  species  of  Sparrow-hawk :  the  Dwarf 
Sparrow-hawk  (A.  minullus),  which  does  not  exceed  the  Blackbird 
in  size.  As  intrepid,  although  not  so  strong,  as  its  European 


624 


RAPTORES,  OR  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 


brother,  it  often  ventures  to  attack  Kites  and  Buzzards,  and,  by 
its  agility,  harasses  them  with  impunity.  The  Chanting  Falcon 
(Melierax  musicus),  which  is  about  the  size  of  the  Goshawk,  sings 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  female  during  the  season  of  incubation.  It 
is  the  only  musician  among-  birds  of  the  Rapacious  order,  and 
therefore  has  claim  to  honourable  mention. 

Both  the  Goshawks  and  the  Sparrow-hawks  were  employed  in 

hawking  in  days  of  old,  but  their 
relative  value  was  much  inferior 
to  that  of  the  Falcon. 

The  birds  which  belong  to  the 
KITE  genus  .(Milvus)  are  charac- 
terised as  follows  : — Beak  curved 
from  the  base,  and  not  toothed ; 
tarsi  short,  slender,  and  feathered 
on  the  upper  part ;  wings  very 
long ;  tail  long,  and  more  or  less 
forked ;  colour  generally  brown. 
Several  species  are  known,  but 
their  characteristics  are  identical. 
The  Kite  (Milvus  regalis),  Fig. 
297,  thus  named  on  account  of 
affording  amusement  for  princes, 
who  hunted  it  with  the  Falcon, 
and  even  the  Sparrow-hawk, 
measures  two  feet  in  height,  the  spread  of  its  wings  being  not  less 
than  five  feet.  Of  all  the  Falcon  tribe  this  bird  is  gifted  with  the 
most  graceful,  rapid,  and  sustained  powers  of  flight.  It  is  so 
incessantly  on  the  wing,  that  it  appears  scarcely  to  require  rest. 
Love  for  soaring  through  space  must  be  the  cause  of  this  activity, 
as  it  never  pursues  its  prey,  but  descends  upon  it  from  the  pro- 
digious heights  at  which  it  may  be  hovering  with  incredible 
velocity,  and  seizing  it  in  its  claws,  bears  it  to  some  adjacent 
tree  to  be  devoured.  Its  food  consists  of  leverets,  moles,  rats, 
field-mice,  reptiles,  and  fish — the  latter  it  catches  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  It  builds  its  nest  on  lofty  trees,  rarely  on  rocks. 
It  is  a  constant  resident  in  some  parts  of  France,  and  is  met 
with  in  nearly  all  countries  of  Europe. 


Fig.  297.— The  Kite  (Milvus  regalis}. 


KITES.  625 

The  Black  Kite  (Milvus  niger)  is  very  common  in  Russia,  and 
has  a  particular  penchant  for  fish.  It  is  not,  however,  above  assist- 
ing Vultures  in  devouring  carrion,  and  may  be  seen  hovering 
over  the  city  of  Moscow  to  pick  up  the  fragments  which  are 
thrown  into  the  streets.  In  autumn  these  Kites  assemble  in  flocks, 
and,  crossing  the  Black  Sea,  proceed  to  winter  in  Egypt,  where 
they  are  so  tame  that  they  perch  on  the  windows  of  the  houses. 
In  the  spring  they  return  to  Europe. 

The  Parasite  Kite  (Milvus  cegyptius)  is  thus  named  by  Levail- 
lant  because  his  whole  system  of  life  seems  to  be  at  the  expense  of 
man,  either  by  devastating  his  poultry-yards  or  robbing  with  ex- 
traordinary impudence  travellers  encamping  in  the  open  air.  This 
celebrated  naturalist  relates  that  whenever  he  made  a  halt,  some 
of  these  birds  came  and  perched  on  his  waggons  for  the  purpose 
of  stealing. 

"  At  Cairo/'  says  Dr.  Petit,  in  the  account  of  his  travels  in 
Abyssinia,  "  I  one  day  saw  a  Kite  snatch  suddenly  from  the  hands 
of  an  Arab  woman  a  piece  of  bread  and  cheese,  at  the  very  moment 
she  was  raising  it  to  her  mouth.  At  Chize,  in  Abyssinia,  another 
Kite  carried  away,  from  under  the  very  nose  of  my  dog,  which 
was  guarding  it,  a  portion  of  a  sheep  just  killed.  The  same  thing 
t9ok  place-  several  times  in  view  of  my  servants." 

The  same  authority  adds  that  these  birds  sometimes  assemble  in 
innumerable  flocks ;  for  he  has  seen  thousands  hovering  over  an 
Egyptian  village. 

The  American  Kite  (Ictinia  mississipiensis)  is  remarkable  for 
its  deeply-forked  tail,  which  it  uses  as  a  rudder  to  guide  it  in  fly- 
ing, when  it  describes  the  most  elegant  curves ;  hence  the  name 
Forked- tail  Pilot,  which  is  sometimes  given  it.  Essentially 
migratory,  they  may  be  seen  in  spring  and  autumn  proceeding 
North  or  South.  They  are  protected  bylaw;  for,  aided  by  the 
Buzzards,  they  are  of  great  service  in  clearing  away  garbage. 
They  have  no  fear  of  water,  and  pounce  upon  fish  when  oppor- 
tunity offers.  In  the  harbours  of  the  Southern  States  they 
may  frequently  be  seen  perched  on  carcasses  floating  in  the 
tide- way. 

The  bill  and  claws  of  the  Kite  are  weak  in  comparison  with  its 
size ;  it  therefore  wisely  avoids  coming  in  collision  with  birds  of 


626  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

prey  better  armed  than  itself.  This  has  been  sufficient  to  give 
it  the  character  of  cowardice. 

Kites  are  easily  tamed,  and  if  taken  young  they  will  soon 
become  familiar. 

BUZZARDS  (Buteo)  have  long  wings,  a  large  head,  and  a  rather 
squat  figure ;  the  tarsi  are  short,  or  of  medium  size ;  and  the 
beak  curved  from  the  base ;  in  fact,  their  appearance  is  heavy 
and  ungraceful.  They  do  not  chase  their  prey  when  it  is  on  the 
wing,  but  secrete  themselves  on  a  tree  or  other  elevation,  where 
they  wait  until  a  victim  passes  within  reach.  When  thus  occu- 
pied, they  will  remain  for  several  hours  in  the  most  complete 
immobility,  presenting  an  air  of  drowsiness  which  has  become 
proverbial.  This  stupid  look  is  owing  to  their  nonchalant  and 
apathetic  attitude,  and  also  to  the  weakness  of  their  eyes,  which 
are  affected  by  the  glare  of  strong  light. 

They  generally  build  their  nests  on  the  loftiest  trees,  occa- 
sionally in  thickets  of  brushwood  growing  among  rocks.  When 
frost  occurs  they  approach  settlements  and  make  forays  upon 
poultry.  If  pressed  by  hunger,  they  become  excessively  bold. 
Their  general  food  consists  of  small  birds,  rodents,  serpents,  in- 
sects, and  sometimes  corn.  They  are  easily  tamed.  M.  Degland 
mentions  one  which  lived  in  perfect  harmony  with  a  sporting 
dog,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  share  its  food.  Buffon  also 
speaks  of  another  which  was  so  attached  to  its  master  that  it 
could  not  be  happy  unless  in  his  company ;  it  was  present 
at  all  his  meals,  when  it  would  caress  him  with  its  head 
and  bill ;  and,  although  this  bird  always  enjoyed  the  most  com- 
plete liberty,  every  evening  it  returned  to  roost  on  the  window- 
sill.  One  day  when  its  master  was  riding  on  horseback,  it 
followed  him  for  more  than  two  leagues,  hovering  over  him  in 
the  air. 

Mr.  Yarrell  relates  of  these  birds,  which  are  much  attached 
to  their  progeny,  that  in  the  town  of  Uxbridge  a  Buzzard  kept 
in  a  domestic  state  having  manifested  a  desire  for  building, 
the  means  were  furnished,  and  two  Hen's  eggs  placed  under 
her.  The  young  chickens  were  hatched  and  reared  as  if  they 
had  been  her  own.  On  another  occasion,  in  order  to  save 
the  trouble  of  sitting,  some  chickens  just  hatching  were  placed 


HARRIERS.  627 

in   her  nest ;  these  she  killed,  evidently  feeling  that  she  was  not 
allied  to  them  by  any  maternal  tie. 

The  principal  species  are  the  Common  Buzzard  (Buteo  vulgaris), 
Fig.  298,  which  is  found  all  over  Europe — it  was  until  lately 
very  common  in  England ;  the  Honey  Buzzard  (Pernis  apivorus), 
a  native  of  Eastern  Europe — this  bird  is  partial  to  bees,  wasps, 
and  their  larvae,  of  which  its  food  principally  consists — it  will  also 
eat  grain,  and,  in  a  domestic  state,  fruit ;  and  the  Rough-legged 
Buzzard  (Archibuteo  lag  opus),  so  called  on  account  of  the  feathers 
which  cover  its  tarsi  down  to  the  toes :  it  is  a  native  of  Europe, 


Fig.  298. — Common  Buzzards  (Buteo  vulgaris). 

North  Africa,  Asia,  and  America.    Ptarmigans  are  their  principal 
food,  and  cold  climates  their  favourite  habitat. 

T^he  birds  which  belong  to  the  HARRIER  genus  are  characterised 
by  long  and  slender  tarsi,  covered  with  feathers  on  the  upper 
portion  only,  and  also  by  a  sort  of  collar  formed  of  closely-planted 
leathers,  which  surrounds  the  neck  and  extends  on  each  side 
to  the  ears.  Marshy  plains,  and  woods  situated  in  the  vicinity 
of  rivers,  are  their  most  frequent  resorts.  They  build  their  nests 
on  the  ground,  or  close  to  it,  in  the  brushwood,  and  in  this  respect 
differ  from  most  of  the  Falcon  family.  When  searching  for  their 

s  s2 


628  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

prey  they  skim  over  the  ground,  and  always  seize  it  suddenty, 
as  if  by  surprise :  if  the  unfortunate  is  lucky  enough  to  avoid  the 
Harrier's  onset  it  is  safe  from  pursuit.  In  Europe  the  best-known 
species  of  this  family  are  the  Hen  Harrier  ( Circus  cyaneus)  and 
the  Moor  Harrier  (Circus  ceruginosus),  Fig.  299. 

The  former  bird  is  about  seventeen  inches  high  ;  it  inhabits  all 
the  countries  of  Europe,  and  feeds  on  serpents,  rodents,  and  frogs. 


Fig.  299.— Moor  Harrier  (Circus  aruginosus) . 

When  it  succeeds  in  making  its  way  into  pigeon-houses  or  poultry- 
yards  it  commits  great  havoc. 

The  Moor  Harrier  feeds  principally  on  game,  to  which  it  is 
extremely  destructive.  Game  preservers  consequently  are  their 
bitterest  enemies.  Their  flight  is  not  swift  except  when  pouncing 
on  their  prey,  when  it  is  possessed  of  great  certainty  and  velocity. 

The  other  species  we  will  mention  are  the  Frog- eating  Harrier 
(Circus  ranivorus],  which  is  a  native  of  South  Africa,  where 
it  feeds  principally  011  frogs  and  fish ;  the  Pale-chested  Harrier 
and  Jardine's  Harrier  ((7.  Swainsonii  and  C.  Jardinii) ;  and 
the  Ash-coloured  Harrier  (C.  cinerescens],  which  is  met  with  in 
the  extreme  south  of  America.  The  latter  has  great  powers  of 


CAKACARAS.  029 

flight,  and  is  always  in  motion,  never  halting  except  to  seize  its 
prey ;  it  is  very  wild,  and  can  only  be  approached  when  feeding. 

The  CARACARAS  (Polyborus,  Yieillot)  are  a  race  of  birds  which 
form  a  link  between  the  Falcon  and  the  Yulture  families.  They 
have,  like  the  latter,  the  projecting  crop,  goggle  eyes,  head  partly 
bare  of  feathers,  toes  long,  especially  the  middle  one,  and  the 
claws  but  slightly  crooked.  They  show  a  decided  taste  for  putrid 
carrion.  They  do  not,  however,  feed  exclusively  on  it,  for  when 
opportunity  offers  they  will  capture  mammals,  young  birds,  rep- 
tiles, mollusks,  grasshoppers,  and  even  worms.  These  birds  are 
essentially  pedestrians  ;  the  slight  curvation  of  their  claws  renders 
this  easy,  and  it  is  not  an  unfrequent  thing  to  see  them  walk  at 
a  slow  pace  for  considerable  distances. 

Their  name  is  derived  from  the  cry  which  they  utter.  They  are 
peculiar  to  South  America,  in  which  they  are  found  in  every 
latitude,  and  at  all  altitudes.  They  present,  however,  differences 
according  to  the  region  which  they  inhabit.  Each  species  fixes 
itself  in  a  zone,  which  becomes  its  special  place  of  habitation. 
Thus  the  Brazilian  Caracara  (Fig.  300)  is  met  with  everywhere, 
from  the  coldest  districts  to  the  hottest  countries,  but  only  at  a 
slight  altitude,  and  in  company  with  the  Chimango  Caracara 
(Milvago  ckimango),  whilst  the  summits  of  the  Andes  are  inhabited 
by  the  Long- winged  Caracara  (M.  megalopterus) ;  and  the  Chima- 
chima  Caracara  (M.  chimachima)  inhabits  the  burning  plains 
between  the  tropics. 

The  Caracaras,  especially  the  common  species  and  the  Chimango, 
are  distinguished  from  the  other  Falconides  by  an  excessive  amount 
of  sociability  :  everywhere  they  seek  out  the  vicinity  of  man.  But 
we  should  be  labouring  under  a  mistake  if  we  supposed  that  affec- 
tion had  any  share  in  this  alliance ;  egotism  and  self-interest  are 
the  motives  which  impel  them  to  act  thus.  It  is  to  feed  at  his 
expense — to  devour  the  fragments  of  his  meals,  kill  his  Domestic 
Fowls,  or  take  possession  of  the  pieces  of  meat  which  are  hung  in 
the  sun  to  dry.  This  bird,  however,  is  useful,  for  it  most  efficiently 
performs  the  duties  of  scavengers. 

The  Caracara  will  craftily  follow  the  sportsman,  and  steal  away 
game  that  is  not  quickly  bagged.  It  also  accompanies  travellers 
across  the  vast  pampas  to  prey  on  the  carcasses  of  the  worn-out 


630 


EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 


beasts  of  burden.  It  will  even  attack  horses  and  mules  which 
are  galled  by  the  pack-saddle,  fastening  greedily  on  their  wounds, 
and  would  actually  devour  them  alive  if  the  quadrupeds  had  not 
the  sagacity  to  dislodge  them  by  rolling  on  the  ground.  It  will 
also  take  up  its  abode  near  flocks  of  sheep,  and  if  it  can  evade 


Fig.  SOU. — The  .Brazilian  Curac  iras  (Po'yborus  brasUiensis) . 

the  watchfulness  of  the  shepherd,  will  destroy  the  newly-born 
lamb. 

Having  confidence  in  its  own  strength,  the  Caracara  frequently 
pursues  other  birds,  especially  Vultures  and  Gulls,  which  it  forces 
to  disgorge  their  food.  It  will  even  engage  in  sanguinary  con- 
flicts with  its  own  species  for  the  possession  of  prey.  Contrary 
to  the  habit  of  most  birds  in  a  state  of  freedom,  it  remains  con- 
stantly paired,  without,  however,  having  more  than  one  or  two 
broods  a  year.  The  Caracara  lays  two  eggs ;  the  nest  is  generally 
placed  on  the  ground  among  brushwood. 

Besides  the  four  species  we  have  mentioned  there  is  also 
the  Caracara  funebris,  thus  named  on  account  of  its  plumage, 


VULTURES.  631 

which  is  almost  entirely  of  a  black  hue.  This  bird  is  still  more 
of  a  plunderer  than  the  preceding  species,  and  is  a  native  of  the 
shores  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  Falkland  Isles,  Yan  Diemen's 
Land,  New  Zealand,  &c. 

VULTURES. 

The  Vultures  ( Vulturidce]  form  a  well-marked  genus,  which 
is  readily  distinguished  from  the  Falcons  by  the  following  cha- 
racteristics : — A  beak  almost  entirely  straight,  and  curved  only 
at  its  extremity  ;  the  head  and  neck  generally  devoid  of  feathers ; 
small  and  staring  eyes ;  head  small ;  tarsi  generally  bare ;  toes 
short  and  slightly  curved ;  weak  claws ;  and  wings  very  long. 
They  are  also  distinguished  from  holding  themselves  in  a  hori- 
zontal position,  whether  walking  or  at  rest ;  whereas  the  Falcons 
stand  erect,  and  present  a  noble  bearing.  Vultures  probably 
adopt  their  attitude  on  account  of  the  length  of  their  wings, 
which  even  in  a  stooping  position  sweep  the  ground,  and  would 
drag  much  more  but  for  this  precaution.  Lastly,  they  are 
specially  characterised  by  their  partiality  for  putrefied  flesh,  which 
forms  their  almost  exclusive  nutriment,  as  it  is  only  occasionally 
they  attack  living  prey. 

When  a  Vulture  has  glutted  itself,  its  crop,  swelled  by  the  food 
which  it  has  devoured,  forms  a  voluminous  projection  in  front  of 
the  neck ;  a  fetid  humour  oozes  from  its  nostrils,  and  it  remains 
sunk  in  a  state  of  stupid  torpor  until  the  food  is  digested. 

They  fly  heavily,  but  mount  aloft  to  great  altitudes.  Their 
powers  of  vision  are  extraordinary.  Should  a  carcass  be  left  on 
the  plain,  they 'immediately  see  it  and  drop  down,  turning  over 
and  over  in  their  hurry  to  partake  of  the  anticipated  banquet. 
It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  their  olfactory  organs  are  so 
acute  as  to  smell,  at  great  distances,  the  emanations  which  escape 
from  bodies  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  and  thus  to  account  for 
their  prompt  arrival.  Latterly,  however,  certain  observers  have 
opposed  this  theory :  according  to  their  ideas  the  Vulture  tribe 
owe  this  wonderful  facility  to  their  sight,  not  to  scent.  This 
reason,  however,  has  not  as  yet  been  rendered  altogether  clear. 
We  therefore  think  it  prudent  to  abstain  from  giving  an  absolute 
judgment  on  the  point,  and  will  content  ourselves  by  admitting 


632  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OE  PEEY. 

that  both  sight  and  smell  concur  in  producing  the  result :  these 
two  senses  may  either  exercise  an  equal  power,  or  one  of  them 
may  predominate  over  the  other. 

The  Vulture  family  exhale  a  tainted  odour,  which  is  owing  to 
the  peculiar  nature  of  their  nutriment ;  it  is,  therefore,  impossible 
for  their  flesh  to  be  in  any  way  utilised  as  food.  This  family 
comprises  four  principal  genera:  the  Griffons  (Gypaetos,  Storr), 
the  Sarcoramphi  (Dumeril),  the  Cathartes  (Guv.  ;  Gallinazos, 
Vieill.),  and  the  Common  Yultures  (Percnopterus,  Cuv. ;  Neophron, 
Sav.). 

The  GRIFFONS,  or  Yulture  Eagles  ( Vultur  fulvus,  Bennett),  form, 
as  their  name  indicates,  an  intermediate  genus  between  the  Eagles 
and  the  Yultures.  Although  they  have  small  and  goggle  eyes, 
not  very  strong  talons,  and  a  projecting  crop  during  the  diges- 
tion of  their  meals,  they  are  allied  to  the  Eagles  in  virtue  of 
their  feathered  tarsi,  as  well  as  by  their  head  and  neck ;  they  also 
show  a  preference  for  living  prey,  which  they  attack  with  readi- 
ness. We  will  complete  their  portrait  by  stating  that  they  have 
a  very  strong  beak,  enlarged  towards  the  point. 

The  Bearded  Griffon  (Gypaetus  barbatus,  Gould)  is  the  cele- 
brated Lammergeyer,  described  by  Buffon  under  the  name  of  the 
Golden  Yulture.  It  owes  its  name  to  a  tuft  of  stiff  hair  which 
is  under  the  beak  :  the  loftiest  mountains  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa  are  its  habitat.  Its  aerie,  which  is  of  considerable  dimen- 
sions, it  builds  amongst  the  most  inaccessible  rocks.  On  the  old 
continent  it  is  the  largest  of  all  the  birds  of  prey,  and  sometimes 
reaches  five  feet  in  length.  Its  spread  of  wing  generally  mea- 
sures nine  or  ten  feet.  Sometimes  these  limits  are  exceeded,  for 
one  was  killed  during  the  French  expedition  to  Egypt,  in  the 
presence  of  Monge  and  Bertholet,  which  measured  upwards  of 
fourteen  feet. 

The  Griffon  is  endowed  with  wonderful  strength  of  body  and 
powers  of  flight.  It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  that  it  attacks 
animals  of  considerable  size,  such  as  calves,  lambs,  deer,  cha- 
mois, &c.,  and  that  it  succeeds  in  overpowering  them.  Like  the 
Eagle,  it  is  reported  to  perpetrate  the  following  ruse,  one  almost 
telling  of  reasoning  powers.  Waiting  until  its  victim  stands 
isolated  on  the  edge  of  a  precipice,  it  flies  suddenly  against  the 


GRIFFONS.  633 

poor  creature,  beats  it  with  its  wings,  and  forces  it  to  fall  over 
into  the  abyss  below,  where  the  Griffon  descends  to  feed  on  the 
mangled  carcass. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  it  sometimes  ventures  to  employ  this 
mano3uvre  against  the  chamois-hunter,  to  make  him  lose  his  equi- 
librium in  difficult  passes.  But  in  spite  of  all  the  wonderful 
stories  told,  it  cannot  be  admitted  that  it  is  capable  of  carrying 
off  lambs  or  children,  for  the  weakness  of  its  claws  will  not 
support  a  prey  of  weight ;  it  is  therefore  obliged  to  rend  its 
victims  in  pieces,  and  devour  them  where  killed. 

Although  it  cannot  carry  off  children,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that 
it  sometimes  attacks  them,  as  the  two  following  facts  will  prove. 

In  1819  two  children  were  devoured  by  Griffons  on  the  environs 
of  Saxe-Gotha,  which  induced  the  Government  to  set  a  price  on 
the  heads  of  these  birds.  M.  Crespon,  in  his  "  Ornithologie  du 
Gard,"  relates  the  second  fact : — 

"  For  many  years,"  says  he,  "I  was  in  possession  of  a  living 
Griffon  which  exhibited  no  very  great  courage  towards  some  other 
large  birds  of  prey  which  were  kept  with  it,  but  it  was  different  as 
regarded  children,  upon  whom  it  attempted  to  spring,  spreading 
out  its  wings  as  if  it  wished  to  strike  them.  Latterly,  I  let 
this  bird  run  about  free  in  my  garden.  Watching  for  a  moment 
when  no  one  saw  it,  it  darted  upon  one  of  my  nieces,  two  years 
and  a  half  old,  and,  having  seized  her  by  the  top  of  her  shoulders, 
threw  her  down  to  the  ground.  Fortunately  her  cries  warned 
us  of  the  danger  she  was  in,  and  I  hastened  to  her  rescue,  and 
found  that  the  child  had  suffered  no  other  injury  but  fright  and 
the  tearing  of  her  dress." 

,  This  bird  shows  great  courage  in  defence  of  its  offspring. 
Joseph  Scherrer,  a  chamois-hunter,  having  first  killed  the  male 
parent,  climbed  to  an  aerie  to  obtain  the  young,  and  had  to 
engage  in  such  a  furious  encounter  with  the  female  that  it  was 
with  immense  difficulty  he  saved  himself  by  shooting  the  bird, 
from  which  he  had  received  some  severe  wounds. 

They  live  in  pairs,  and  a  number  together  are  rarely  seen. 
This  is  common  to  all  animals  which  nature  has  endowed  with  a 
great  amount  of  physical  strength,  for  it  is  the  weak  only  which 
practise  the  maxim,  "  Union  is  strength." 


634  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

These  birds  were  once  far  more  plentiful  in  Europe  than 
now.  The  reason  of  this  is  the  great  havoc  which  was  made  among 
them  in  the  last  century.  Even  at  the  present  day  pursuit  of 
them  is  encouraged  by  the  grant  of  a  reward  for  each  indi- 
vidual killed.  The  number  of  eggs  they  lay  being  limited  (two), 
there  is  but  little  cause  for  surprise  that  the  species  is  very 
sensibly  diminishing. 

In  the  birds  which  belong  to  the  Sarcoramphus  family  the  base 
of  the  bill  is  furnished  with  a  ring  of  long  feathers,  and  the  bill 
itself  is  surmounted  with  a  thick  and  scalloped  fleshy  crest ;  from 
this  peculiarity  of  organisation  they  derive  their  name,  the  signifi- 
cation of  Sarcoramphus  being  "  fleshy-billed." 

This  genus  comprises  but  two  species,  the  Condor  (Sarco- 
ramphus gryphus,  Dumeril)  and  the  King  Yulture  (Sarcoramphus 
papa). 

The  CONDOR  (from  the  word  Cuntur,  in  the  Peruvian  language), 
Fig.  301,  commonly  called  the  Great  Yulture  of  the  Andes,  is  the 
most  remarkable  species  of  the  Yulture  family,  both  for  its  size  and 
strength,  and  also  for  the  vast  extent  of  the  stretch  of  its  wings. 
Its  plumage  is  of  a  dark  blue,  approaching  to  black;  its  collar, 
which  occupies  only  the  back  and  sides  of  the  neck,  is  formed  of 
a  dazzling  white  down.  Its  crest,  bevelled  off  at  the  edge,  is 
cartilaginous  in  its  nature,  and  of  a  bluish  colour,  and  extends  down 
the  side  of  the  neck  in  two  fleshy  strings.  Lastly,  the  male 
has  two  fleshy  appendages  under  the  lower  mandible,  level  with 
the  collar.  The  wings  are  as  long  as  the  tail,  their  whole  develop- 
ment being  ten  or  twelve  feet.  The  length  of  the  bird  from  the 
point  of  the  bill  to  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  on  an  average  about  four 
feet. 

The  chief  habitat  of  the  Condor  is  the  western  slope  of  the  chain 
of  the  Andes,  in  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Chili ;  it  frequents  all  the 
different  altitudes,  from  the  burning  sands  of  the  sea-coast  to  the 
ice-bound  solitudes  of  perpetual  snow.  Humboldt  and  Bonpland, 
when  exploring  the  Andes,  repeatedly  noticed  Condors  close  round 
them  when  at  a  height  of  15,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
D'Orbigny  saw  them  as  high  up  as  the  summit  of  Illimani,  a 
height  of  24,600  feet ;  and  he  likewise  met  with  them  on  the  coasts 
of  Peru  and  Patagonia,  seeking  their  food  among  the  various 


CONDOES. 


635 


debris  which  the  waves  had  thrown  upon  the  shore,  proving  that 
they  can  support  variations  of  temperature  which  man  would 
be  unable  to  bear ;  in  fact,  at  a  height  of  19,000  feet  the  air 
becomes  so  rarefied,  and  the  cold  so  intense,  that  no  human  being 


Fig.  301. — Condor  (  Vullw  gryphus,  Linn.). 

would  be  able  to  exist  for  any  length  of  time  subject  to  their 
influence. 

The  Condor  passes  the  night  at  great  elevations,  perched  on  th 
cleft  of  a  rock.     As  soon  as  the  rising  sun  gilds  the  peaks  of  the 
mountains  it  raises  its  neck,  hitherto  buried  between  its  shoulders, 
and  shaking  its  wide  wings,  launches  into  space.      The  impetus 
of  its  own  weight  at  first  carries  it  downwards,  but  soon  recover- 


636  RAPTORES,  OK  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

ing  itself,  it  traverses  the  aerial  space  with  majestic  ease  and 
grandeur.  Almost  imperceptible  movements  of  the  wings  are 
sufficient  to  carry  it  in  every  direction ;  at  one  moment  it  is 
skimming  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  now  it  is  up  in  the 
clouds,  three  thousand  feet  above.  The  Condor's  power  of  vision 
is  so  great  that  it  commands  a  view  of  the  plain  beneath  from 
the  greatest  heights,  and  although  it  is  no  longer  visible  to 
the  denizens  of  earth,  their  slightest  movements  cannot  escape  its 
piercing  sight.  When  it  catches  view  of  prey,  it  partly  folds 
its  wings  and  descends  upon  it  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning. 

Although  thus  endowed  with  such  powerful  means  of  action,  the 
Condor  never  attacks  living  animals  unless  they  are  helpless  from 
youth,  or  enfeebled  by  disease.  The  stories  of  some  travellers  con- 
cerning the  boldness  of  this  bird  are  not  founded  on  fact.  It 
is  inaccurate  to  state  that  the  Condor  will  attack  a  man,  as  a 
child  of  ten  years  old,  armed  with  a  stick,  has  been  known  to  put 
it  to  flight.  It  has  been  asserted  that  this  bird  will  carry  off 
lambs,  young  llamas,  and  even  children,  but  this  statement  will 
not  hold  good  when  subjected  to  examination  ;  for  the  Condor, 
like  all  the  Vulture  tribe,  has  short  toes  and  non-retractile  claws  ; 
it  is,  therefore,  radically  impossible  for  it  to  clutch  and  carry  prey 
of  any  considerable  weight. 

It  is,  however,  a  fact  beyond  all  question  that  the  Condor  is  in 
the  habit  of  prowling  round  flocks  of  sheep  and  cows ;  and,  like 
the  Caracara,  will  fall  upon  and  devour  newly-born  animals.  It 
accompanies  the  caravans  which  cross  the  plains  of  South  America, 
and  when  an  unfortunate  pack  animal,  worn  out  with  fatigue 
and  privation,  sinks  down  exhausted,  totally  unable  to  proceed  on 
the  journey,  it  becomes  the  prey  of  these  winged  banditti,  which 
often  commence  their  meal  before  life  has  left  the  body.  M.  de 
Castelnau,  who  has  observed  the  Condor  in  the  Andes,  writes 
with  regard  to  this  subject : — 

"  Travellers  who  have  sunk  down  upon  the  ground  when  utterly 
worn  out  with  fatigue  and  suffering  have  been  known  to  be 
attacked,  tormented,  and  finally  torn  to  pieces  by  these  ferocious 
birds,  which  pluck  strips  of  flesh  off  their  victims,  having  first 
disabled  them  with  blows  of  the  wing.  The  unfortunates  may 
resist  for  a  few  instants,  but  ere  long  a  few  blood-stained  frag- 


CATHARTES.  637 

merits  are  all  that  remain  to  announce  to  the  passer-by  the 
horrible  death  of  those  who  preceded  him  on  these  dangerous 
paths." 

The  Condor  possesses  extraordinary  tenacity  of  life.  Hum- 
boldt  relates  that  he  found  it  impossible  to  strangle  one,  and  that 
he  was  compelled  to  shoot  it  to  put  an  end  to  its  existence. 

When  the  Condor  is  gorged  with  food  it  becomes  very  heavy, 
and  can  scarcely  fly.  The  Indians,  who  are  well  aware  of  this 
peculiarity,  take  advantage  of  it  to  destroy  the  robber  thus : — 
Carrion  is  placed  in  full  view  to  entice  the  Condors.  When  the 
birds  have  thoroughly  surfeited  themselves  they  are  hunted  on 
horseback  and  entangled  with  lassoes,  to  be  finally  beaten  to 
death  with  clubs. 

Condors  do  not  assemble  in  flocks  except  when  devouring  some 
animal  of  great  size.  The  hen  bird  lays  a  couple  of  eggs  in 
some  crevice  on  the  mountains  or  cliffs :  nest-building  they 
entirely  disregard.  The  rearing  of  the  young  requires  several 
months ;  the  parent  birds  feed  them  by  disgorging  into  their  bills 
the  food  which  they  have  stored  in  their  crops.  All  the  Yulture 
tribe  do  the  same. 

The  Condor  is  tamed  with  difficulty ;  captivity  seems  only  to 
increase  its  savage  nature.  Humboldt  kept  one  at  Quito  for 
eight  days,  and  he  states  that  to  approach  it  was  always  dan- 
gerous. 

The  KING  VULTURE  (Sarcorampkus  papa),  Fig.  302,  is  distin- 
guished from  the  Condor  by  its  collar,  or  ruff,  which  is  of  a  slate 
colour,  and  surrounds  the  neck  ;  also  by  its  crest,  of  an  orange  hue, 
situated  on  the  top  of  the  bill.  Instead  of  confining  itself  to  arid 
and  barren  localities,  it  frequents  plains  and  wooded  hills,  and 
nests  in  the  hollows  of  old  trees.  Its  habits  are,  however,  very 
much  the  same  as  those  of  the  Condor.  It  has  been  named  the 
King  of  the  Vultures  because  the  other  Vultures  dread  it,  as  it 
appropriates  their  prey.  It  is  found  in  Mexico,  Guiana,  Peru, 
Brazil,  and  Paraguay,  and  occasionally  in  Florida,  doubtless  its 
most  northern  habitat.  In  this  species  the  female  has  a  crest 
as  well  as  the  male. 

The  genus  Cathartes  of  Illiger  has  a  long  and  elongated 
bill;  the  head  and  neck  bare;  the  nostrils  oblong  and  pierced 


638 


EAPTOEES,  OE  BIRDS  OF  PEEY. 


through  ;  the  wings  obtuse,  and  reaching  a  little  beyond  the  tail. 
There  are  three  species :  the  Urubu  ( Vultur  atratus)  and  the 
Turkey  Buzzard  (Vultur  aura,  Linn.),  which  are  natives  of 


Fig.  302. — King  Vultures  (Sarcoramphus  papa,  Yarrell). 

America,   and  the  Percnopterus  (Vulture  of  Latham,  Pharaoh's 
Hen  of  Bruce),  peculiar  to  the  Old  World. 

The  URUBU  ( Vultur  atratus),  Fig.  303,  is  the  size  of  a  small 
Turkey.  Its  plumage,  of  a  brilliant  black,  gives  it  a  somewhat 
dismal  look,  which  is  amply  justified  by  its  disgusting  habits. 
This  bird  is  of  a  sociable  nature,  and  is  always  met  with  in  nume- 
rous flocks.  Like  all  birds  which  subsist  on  decaying  matters,  it 
is  the  constant  guest  of  man,  and  accompanies  him  in  all  his 
wanderings  through  its  habitat.  In  nearly  all  the  large  towns 
of  South  America  it  has  acquired  rights  of  citizenship,  where  it 


THE  UEUBU. 


639 


may  be  seen  almost  in  a  domestic  state,  and  multiplying  under 
the  protection  of  the  laws.  In  Peru  the  inhabitants  are  pro- 
hibited from  killing  a  Urubu  under  penalty  of  ten  pounds.  The 
same  prohibition  exists  in  Jamaica. 

This  will  easily  be  understood  when  it  is  explained  that  in 
these  countries  the  Urubus  perform  the  whole  duty  of  cleansing 
the  public  streets  from  all  kinds  of  filth  and  garbage,  which, 


Fig.  303. — Urubus  (  Vultur  atrutus,  Wils.). 

under  the  influence ;pf  an  elevated  temperature,  would  certainly 
infect  the  air,  and  engender  continual  epidemics.  These  birds, 
officiating  as  public  scavengers,  preserve  the  general  health,  and 
are  therefore  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  laws  in  spite  of 
their  unpleasant  aspect  and  their  unclean  odour. 

"The  familiarity  and  tameness  of  the  Urubus,"  says  Alcide 
D'Orbignj-,  "  are  extreme.  At  the  time  of  the  distributions  of  meat 
made  to  the  Indians  in  the  province  of  Mojos  I  have  known  them 
snatch  away  the  pieces  as  soon  as  the  men  had  received  them.  At 


640  RAPTOBES,  OE  BIHDS  OF  PBEY. 

one  of  these  periodical  distributions  at  Concepcion  de  Mojos,  an 
Indian  told  me  beforehand  that  I  should  see  the  most  impudent 
bird  possible,  which  was  well  known  by  the  inhabitants  by  having 
lost  a  foot.  It  was  not  long,  in  fact,  before  we  saw  it  come  up, 
and  it  certainly  showed  all  the  qualities  that  had  been  attributed 
to  it.  I  was  told,"  says  he,  "that  it  was  perfectly  aware  of  the 
time  of  the  distribution,  which  took  place  every  fifteen  days  in 
each  mission.  And  true  enough,  for  happening  to  be  present  the 
following  week  at  a  similar  performance  at  the  mission  of  Mag- 
dalena,  distant  twenty  leagues  from  Concepcion,  I  heard  the 
Indians  cry  out,  and  soon  recognised  the  lame  Urubu  just  arrived. 
The  cures  of  the  two  missions  informed  me  that  this  bird  never 
failed  to  be  present  on  the  fixed  days  at  both  places.  This  fact 
would  seem  to  indicate  a  very  high  degree  of  instinct  in  the 
Urubu,  combined  with  memory." 

According  as  it  inhabits  country  or  town,  the  Urubu  passes  the 
night  on  branches  of  trees  or  roofs  of  houses.  As  soon  as  it 
is  light  in  the  morning  it  proceeds  to  search  for  food;  and, 
describing  wide  circles  in  the  air,  explores  the  neighbourhood.  If 
it  perceives  a  carcass,  it  pitches  on  it,  and,  from  the  power  with 
which  its  beak  is  furnished,  soon  effects  an  opening  through  the 
hide  into  the  intestines.  But  its  movements  have  been  watched 
by  others,  and  soon  thousands  arrive  to  take  part  in  the  putrid 
banquet.  Contests  and  fights,  wrangling  and  struggling,  in  which 
the  strongest  is  always  triumphant,  then  arise.  In  an  incredibly 
short  time  the  carcass  is  devoured,  and  nothing  remains  but  a 
skeleton,  the  bones  of  which  are  cleaned  as  thoroughly  as  if 
done  by  an  anatomist.  The  Urubus  afterwards  perch  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  with  their  necks  drawn  back  between  their 
shoulders,  and  their  wings  extended,  rapidly  digest  their  food. 
The  Urubus,  like  most  of  the  Vulture  family,  spread  their  wings  out 
for  hours,  although  in  a  state  of  repose.  The  cause  of  this  habit 
is  that  the  attitude  permits  them  to  exhale  from,  their  bodies  a 
kind  of  greasy  perspiration. 

In  spite  of  the  services  which  this  bird  renders  to  man,  it  [is 
still  regarded  with  the  greatest  repugnance.  Nevertheless, 
D'Orbigny  states  that  he  has  seen  some  completely  tamed,  and 
that  they  appeared  susceptible  of  affection.  This  naturalist  also 


THE  COMMON  VULTURE.  641 

relates  that  a  Creole  had  one  of  these  birds,  which  he  had  reared, 
and  that  it  accompanied  its  master  wherever  he  went.  At  one 
time,  its  master  having  fallen  ill,  the  bird  became  very  sad ;  but 
finding  one  day  that  the  window  of  the  sick-room  was  left  open, 
it  flew  in,  and  came  close  to  the  invalid,  manifesting  by  its  caresses 
the  joy  it  felt  at  seeing  him  again. 

The  TURKEY  BUZZARD  (Vultur  aura)  is  a  native  of  the  same 
hemisphere  as  the  preceding  species,  but  is  more  addicted  to 
temperate  climates  :  it  is  met  with  as  far  north  as  the  shores  of 
the  great  chain  of  lakes.  It  is  the  same  size  as  the  Urubu,  and 
its  habits  of  life  are  nearly  identical.  Like  the  Urubu,  too,  it  is 
protected  by  the  laws.  In  Peru,  for  instance,  any  one  who  kills 
an  Aura  is  punished  by  a  fine  of  fifty  piastres;  in  Cuba,  the 
culprit  is  excommunicated.  They  are  capable  of  standing  a  great 
amount  of  cold :  when  snow  covers  the  ground  in  the  State  of 
Illinois  they  may  be  seen  congregated  in  great  numbers  wherever 
carrion  is  to  be  found. 

The  COMMON  VULTURE  (Neophron  per  cnopterus,  Yarrell)  is  in 
the  Old  World  that  which  the  Urubu  and  the  Turkey  Buzzard 
are  in  the  New.  It  is  very  common  in  Greece  and  Turkey,  and 
especially  in  Egypt  and  Arabia.  In  Constantinople  and  other 
Eastern  cities  it  performs  the  duty  of  removing  all  the  putrid 
matter  which  the  carelessness  and  apathy  of  the  inhabitants  allow 
to  remain  in  the  streets.  A  great  amount  of  respect  is  conse- 
quently paid  to  these  birds  ;  and  although  the  law  inflicts  no  penalty 
for  killing  them,  they  nevertheless  enjoy  the  most  perfect  security 
in  the  midst  of  the  Mussulman  population. 

These  birds  were  well  known  to  the  ancients,  who  gave  them 
the  name  of  Per  cnopterus  on  account  of  their  black  wings.  The 
Egyptians  classed  them  among  sacred  birds,  and  often  repre- 
sented them  on  their  monuments  as  religious  symbols.  Flocks 
of  them  are  in  the  habit  of  following  caravans  across  the  desert, 
always  finding  something  to  pick  up ;  and,  as  they  invariably 
accompany  the  pilgrims  in  their  journey  to  Mecca  every  year, 
some  devout  Mussulmen  have  bequeathed  money  sufficient  to 
support  a  certain  number  of  the  birds  which  manifest  such  fidelity 
to  the  faith  of  Islam. 

They  are  about  the  size  of  a  Fowl ;  hence  they  obtain  the  name 

T  T 


642  BAPTOBES,  OB  BIBDS  OF  PBEY. 

of  Pharaoh's  Chickens,  by  which  they  are  designated  in  Egyptian. 
Although  they  do  not  manifest  much  inclination  for  living  prey, 
they  will  sometimes  attack  small  mammals  which  are  incapable 
of  defence  or  flight.  The  Crow  is  an  adversary  whose  superiority 
they  never  fail  to  acknowledge,  and  rarely  dare  to  resist. 

The  Pondicherry  Vulture  (Vultur  ponticerianus),  the  Indian 
Yulture  (Vultur  indicus),  and  Kolbe's  Yulture  (Vultur  Kolbii), 
are  also  deserving  of  notice ;  the  two  former  are  found  prin- 
cipally in  Hindostan,  the  latter  in  different  parts  of  Africa  as  well 
as  Java. 

The  Yultures  properly  so  called  (Vultur,  Cuv.)  have  the  head 
and  neck  bare,  the  latter  being  surrounded  at  its  base  by  a  ruff 
or  collar  of  feathers  ;  the  nostrils  round  or  oval ;  the  tarsi  bare 
or  feathered  on  the  upper  portion  ;  the  middle  toe  very  long  ; 
the  wings  pointed,  and  almost  hanging  down  to  the  ground. 
Their  faculty  of  flight,  although  powerful,  is  slow  and  heavy  ; 
they  take  wing  with  difficulty,  and  this  fact  has  procured  for  them 
their  name  of  Vultur  (volatus  tardus,  slow  flight).  Preferring 
putrid  meat,  they  feed  but  little  on  flesh  in  a  fresh  state,  although 
they  do  not  absolutely  refuse  it ;  they  consequently  seldom  attack 
living  animals. 

Buffon  has  branded  the  Yulture  with  a  stigma  of  infamy  which 
will  always  cast  an  odium  on  its  name.  "  Yultures,"  says  he, 
"  are  actuated  by  nothing  but  a  degraded  instinct  of  gluttony  and 
greediness.  They  will  never  contend  with  the  living  if  they  can 
glut  their  appetites  on  the  dead.  The  Eagle  attacks  its  enemies 
or  its  victims  face  to  face  ;  it  pursues  them,  fights  them,  and 
seizes  them  by  its  own  individual  prowess.  Yultures,  on  the 
contrary,  however  slight  may  be  the  resistance  which  they  antici- 
pate, combine  in  flocks  like  cowardly  assassins,  and  are  rather 
thieves  than  warriors — birds  of  carnage  rather  than  birds  of  prey ; 
for  these  are  the  only  birds  which  are  so  madly  devoted  to  carrion 
that  they  pick  the  very  bones  of  a  decaying  carcass.  Corruption 
and  infection  seem  to  attract  instead  of  repelling  them."  Further 
on,  too,  he  adds,  "  In  comparing  birds  with  quadrupeds,  the  Yul- 
ture seems  to  combine  the  strength  and  cruelty  of  the  tiger  with 
the  cowardice  and  gluttony  of  the  jackal." 

The  great  naturalist  has,  however,  somewhat  calumniated  the 


VULTUEES. 


643 


Vulture.  In  depicting  it  in  such  very  dark  colours,  his  desire 
seems  to  be  to  contrast  it  with  the  Eagle,  which  he  had  repre- 
sented as  the  highest  type  of  courage  and  nobility  ;  and  he  has 
evidently  yielded  to  the  temptation  to  make  the  contrast  between 
the  two  birds  as  striking  as  possible.  The  idea  of  this  antithesis 
must,  in  fact,  have  led  Buffon's  mind  astray,  as  he  was  often  more 
fond  of  figure  than  fact.  The  Vulture  seeks  after  carcasses  because 
it  really  prefers  them  to  living  prey ;  and  its  not  attacking 
living  animals,  like  the  rest  of  the  family,  is  caused  by  the  fact 


Fig.  304.— The  Yellow  Vulture  (  Vultur  fulvus). 

that  it  is  neither  armed  nor  organised  for  such  an  attack.  It 
obeys  the  irresistible  and  ordained  instincts  of  its  nature,  and  in 
this  we  have  no  right  to  discover  any  feeling  of  cowardice.  In 
the  present  day  it  is  really  time  to  have  done  with  all  these  time- 
worn  rhetorical  fancies  of  the  old  naturalists,  which  are  in  con- 
tinual and  complete  variance  with  the  results  of  science  and 
observation. 


644  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

The  Vulture  genus  comprises  several  species,  all  of  which  belong 
to  the  Old  World. 

The  Yellow  Vulture  (Fig.  304),  the  size  of  which  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  Goose,  is  a  native  more  especially  of  the 
South  and  South-east  of  Europe.  It  is  common  in  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  Sardinia,  Greece,  Hungary,  Italy,  and  Spain ;  it  is  rarely 
seen  in  France.  It  makes  its  nest  in  the  crevice  of  some  inac- 
cessible rock.  When  pressed  by  hunger  it  shows  no  fear  in 
attacking  living  animals  ;  it  is  thus  an  object  of  dread  among  the 
shepherds  along  the  sea- coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  easily 
tamed  when  caught  youDg.  Of  this  fact  M.  Nordmann  gives 
us  an  instance  : — 

"  A  lady  residing  at  Taganrog,"  says  he,  "was  in  possession  of 
a  Yellow  Vulture  which  was  in  the  habit  every  morning  of  leaving 
its  home  and  resorting  to  the  fresh-meat  market,  where  the  bird 
was  well  known  and  usually  fed.  If  it  so  happened  that  it  was 
refused  its  daily  pittance,  it  was  always  well  able  to  get  hold  of  it 
by  some  cunning  or  other ;  and  then,  after  the  larceny  was  com- 
mitted, the  bird  would  take  itself  off  to  the  roof  of  some  neigh- 
bouring house,  so  as  to  consume  its  plunder  in  peace,  and  safe  from 
any  attack.  This  bird  would  often  cross  the  Sea  of  Azoff,  and 
visit  the  city  of  the  same  name,  situated  opposite  Taganrog ;  and, 
after  having  spent  the  day  there,  would  come  back  at  night  to  the 
house  of  its  mistress." 

There  is  a  variety  of  the  above  bird  rather  larger  than  the  one 
just  noticed.  It  is  common  in  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  the  Tyrol,  the 
Greek  Archipelago,  and  also  in  the  South  of  Spain,  in  Egypt, 
and  a  great  part  of  Africa.  In  autumn  it  leaves  the  temperate 
regions  to  winter  in  some  warmer  clime.  M.  Degland  and  M. 
Bouteille  mention  various  instances  of  intelligence  and  courage 
shown  by  it,  for  it  has  been  known  to  repel  dogs.  Another  bird 
of  the  same  kind,  having  flown  away  from  its  master's  house, 
grievously  wounded  two  men  who  endeavoured  to  catch  it.  The 
shepherds  fear  it  even  more  than  the  preceding. 

The  Sociable  Vulture  (Fig.  305)  is  a  native  of  the  lofty  moun- 
tain regions  of  Africa.  It  has  a  fleshy  crest,  which,  taking  its 
rise  close  to  each  ear,  extends  down  the  neck ;  from  this  it 
derives  its  Latin  specific  name.  Levaillant,  who  often  observed 


THE  SECRETARY  BIRD. 


645 


it  in   Africa,   was  several  times  a  witness  of  its  voracity.     One 

day  he  had  killed  a  couple  of  buffaloes,   and,  after  having  had 

them  cut  up,  caused  the  quarters 

of  meat  to  be  hung  to  dry  in  the 

sun  ;  they  were  soon  assailed  by  a 

flock    of    these    Yultures,    which 

carried  away  the  pieces  of  meat  in 

spite   of    the   numerous    gunshots 

with  which  they  were  greeted.   On 

another    occasion,     having   killed 

three  zebras  at  some  distance  from 

his  camp,  he  went  to  find  a  waggon 

to  carry  them  away  ;  on  his  return 

he   found   nothing  but  the   bones 

remaining,  round  which  hundreds 

of  Yultures  were  hovering. 

The  Oricou  is  of  somewhat  con- 
siderable size  ;  it  is  about  four  feet 
and  three-quarters  in  length,  and 
the  spread  of  its  wings  measures 
as  much  as  three  yards  and  a  half. 
inaccessible  steep  rocks. 

Lastly,  the  Chinese  Yulture  (  Vultur  leuconotus),  which  is  about 
the  size  of  a  Turkey,  is  of  a  dirty  brownish  black  on  the  body,  and 
white  about  the  shoulders;  it  is  very  common  in  the  southern 
portions  of  the  Celestial  Empire. 


It  builds  its  nest  amon 


THE  SERPENT-EATERS  (Gypogeranus,  Illiger). 

This  family  comprehends  but  one  single  species,  the  Secretary 
Bird,  which  in  its  organisation  seems  allied  to  the  Waders. 

The  SECRETARY  BIRD  ( Gypogeranus  serpentarius),  Fig.  306, 
has  a  widely-opening  bill,  very  crooked  and  very  powerful;  a  pro- 
jecting superciliary  arch ;  feathered  legs ;  tarsi  very  long,  and 
covered,  as  well  as  the  toes,  with  large  and  hard  scales.  The  tail 
is  tapering,  and  the  two  middle  feathers  are  longer  than  the  others. 
The  wings,  which  are  short  and  provided  with  bony  protuberances, 
form  most  destructive  weapons,  which  the  bird  uses  with  much 


646 


EAPTOEES,  OR  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 


skill  to  disable  the  serpents,  of  which  its  food  principally  consists. 
It  has  oil  its  head  a  tuft  of  long  feathers,  which  can  be  raised 
at  will.  This  has  been  the  origin  of  its  name,  in  allusion  to  the 
custom  that  clerks  had  of  placing  their  pen  behind  their  ear  in  the 
days  when  goose-quills  were  used  for  writing.  Its  toes  are  short, 
and  its  claws  blunt  and  well  adapted  for  walking.  It  con- 


Fig.  306. -Secretary  Bird  (Gypogeranus  serpentanus). 

sequently  runs  very  rapidly  ;  hence  it  sometimes  obtains  the  name 
of  Messenger  Bird. 

A  contest  between  a  Secretary  Bird  and  a  Serpent  is  a  most 
curious  sight.  The  reptile,  when  attacked  suddenly,  stops  and 
rears  itself  up,  swelling  its  neck  and  showing  anger  by  shrill 
hissings. 

"  At  this  instant,"  says  Levaillant,  "  the  bird  of  prey,  spreading 


THE  SECRETARY  BIRD.  647 

ontTof  his  wings,  holds  it  in  front  of  him,  and  covers  both  his  legs 
as  well  as  the  lower  part  of  his  body  with  it  as  if  with  a  buckler. 
The  reptile  makes  a  spring  at  his  enemy;  the  bird  makes  a  bound, 
and  spurning  the  Serpent  with  his  wing,  retreats  again,  jumping 
about  in  every  direction  in  a  mode  which  to  a  spectator  appears 
highly  grotesque.  He  soon  returns  to  the  combat,  ever  presenting 
to  the  venomous  tooth  of  his  adversary  nothing  but  the  end  of  his 
well-protected  wing ;  and  whilst  the  latter  is  fruitlessly  expending 
its  poison  by  biting  the  callous  feathers,  the  bird  is  inflicting 
vigorous  blows  with  his  other  wing.  At  last  the  reptile,  stunned 
and  wavering,  rolls  at  full  length  in  the  dust ;  the  bird  then 
cleverly  catches  hold  of  it  and  throws  it  several  times  up  into  the 
air,  until  the  victim  becoming  exhausted  and  powerless,  the  bird 
crushes  its  skull  with  his  sharp-pointed  bill.  The  Serpent  is  then 
swallowed  whole  by  its  conqueror,  unless  it  is  too  big,  in  which 
case  it  is  first  torn  in  pieces." 

The  Secretary  Bird  does  not  feed  exclusively  on  serpents ;  it 
also  consumes  lizards,  tortoises,  and  even  insects ;  its  voracity  is 
extreme,  and  it  possesses  a  power  of  digestion  which  is  really  sur- 
prising. Levaillant  killed  one  the  stomach  of  which  contained 
twenty-one  small  tortoises,  still  whole ;  eleven  lizards,  eight  or 
nine  inches  long ;  three  serpents  of  a  length  varying  from  two  to 
two  and  a  half  feet ;  a  perfect  heap  of  grasshoppers  and  other 
insects ;  and,  lastly,  a  great  pellet  of  various  remains,  which  it 
had  not  been  able  to  assimilate,  and  which  would  have  ultimately 
been  vomited  up. 

These  birds  are  natives  of  the  arid  plains  of  South  Africa. 
They  pair  about  the  month  of  July,  the  male  birds  having  first 
engaged  in  sanguinary  conflicts  for  the  choice  of  their  mates. 
Their  nest,  which  is  flat,  and  lined  on  the  inside  with  down  and 
feathers,  is  constructed  in  the  thickest  bushes,  or  on  the  loftiest 
trees,  in  which  two  or  three  eggs,  of  a  white  hue  spotted  with 
red,  are  laid.  The  young  ones  are  very  late  in  quitting  the 
parental  home ;  for  they  do  not  leave  it  till  they  have  acquired 
full  development.  Nearly  four  months  elapse  before  they  are  able 
to  stand  firmly  and  run  about  with  complete  freedom. 

The  Secretary  Bird  is  much  appreciated  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  on  account  of  the  services  it  renders  in  destroying 


648  EAPTOEES,  OE  BIEDS  OF  PEEY. 

venomous  reptiles.  As  it  is  easily  tamed  if  captured  when  young, 
the  colonists  have  made  a  domestic  bird  of  it,  and  use  it  to  protect 
their  poultry  against  the  incursions  of  serpents  and  rats.  With 
the  inhabitants  of  the  poultry-yard  it  is  always  on  good  terms, 
even  to  quelling  the  quarrels  which  spring  up  among  the  Galli- 
naceae  around  it.  But  it  must  be  related  that  it  is  necessary  to 
see  that  it  is  sufficiently  fed,  for  otherwise  it  will  not  hesitate  to 
help  itself  occasionally  to  a  chicken. 

In  1832  the  Secretary  Bird  was  introduced  into  the  French 
West  Indies,  particularly  Guadaloupe  and  Martinique,  on  purpose 
to  make  war  upon  the  Trigonocephalus,  or  Rattlesnake,  a  dan- 
gerous reptile  swarming  in  those  countries,  which  we  mentioned  in  a 
previous  portion  of  this  work.  The  introduction  of  the  Secretary 
Bird  into  the  Antilles  proved  to  be  a  real  benefit.  In  order  to  be 
convinced  of  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  read  the  interesting  work 
published  a  few  years  ago  on  this  question  by  M.  Rufz  de  Lavison, 
who  was  for  a  long  time  an  inhabitant  of  the  French  West  Indies 
before  he  became  director  of  the  Jardin  Zoologique  d'Acclimatation, 
in  Paris. 


THE    END. 


PRINTED   BY  VIRTUE   AND   CO.,  CITY   BOAD,   LONDON. 


ERBATA. 


Phasianus  cristatus  indicus,  in  page  448,  should  be  attributed  to  Brisson, 
not  Latham. 

The  synonym  for  Ring  Pigeon,  in  page  448,  should  be  Columba  palumbus. 

Woodcut   182    represents  the    Stock    Dove,   erroneously  named  Wood 
Pigeons  in  page  450. 


-.  V 


ft 


THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  SANTA  CRUZ 

SCIENCE  LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  DATE  stamped  below. 


1971  JUN  29 

NJB.-HOLD 

ffcrr  2 


29 
REC'DNOV151979 


50m-4,'69(J7948g8)2477 


RED 


NRL 


2106  00256  1972 


